Psychology, Taken from the Greek word “psyche” and “logos” literally means “soul or mind” and “study”. This original interpretation of term covering to concept- mind substance and matter substance,recent philosophical and scientific trends however, deal with this ambiguity by stressing conceptualized events as perception, learning and problem solving “without respect to the verity of possible metaphysical interpretation of what sort of substance participates in this events.
Psychology is a scientific study of a behavior. It attempts to explain behavior in two ways, the developmental approach accounting for behavior on the basis of what has gone before and the interactive approach, the basis of what is presently happening in the matter of stimuli, bodily condition and conflicting tendencies.
Like other behavioral sciences, its study overlaps neighboring science studies like biology, the social sciences and the physical sciences. Because the aim of a science is to discover new and useful information, the fact of psychology is not complete. It must rely on the data gathered from the recent researches which are amenable to experimental verification. Its makes use of precise and accurately measuring devices and methods like observation, case histories, intervis, biographics reports and data statistical method and the like.
Its scientific foundation dates back to Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) called the father of modern Psychology who opened the the first psychological laboratory in 1879 in the University of Leipzig Germany. The roots contemporary psychology can be traced to several school of thought like Structuralism, Functionalism, Gestalt, Purposivism, Individualism, Behavioralism and Psychoanalysis.
Principles of Growth and Development
Hereditary information regarding the process by which living organism transmits characteristic or traits form parents to offsprings was stimulated by the experiments of Gregor Mendel, an Australian botanist and Augustinian monk. On the basis of his experiments, the so-called Mendellian Laws of Hereditary were formulated – like the Laws of Dominance, Law of Segregation and Law of Unit characters
Chromosomes and the genes carried by them transmit characteristic like intelligence, physical height ad emotionality from parents to offspring. Both hereditary and environment jointly determine the development of the behavior in a individual.
When the child is conceived, his hereditary becomes fixed. That means that the hereditary components in the form of traits inherited from both parents are already determined and whatever alterations may appear are largely the result of environment conditions
The period of prenatal development represents the period of the greatest growth in the whole life of the individual. For only a brief period of nine months, he grows to length approximately 20 inches more or less. The mother must extra careful especially the first three months of pregnancy for it is during these period that many vital parts of the body like the brain, the nervous system and the visceral organs are being formed.
The pattern of motor development are similar for all human species though not identical in time and degree. The first kind of language that the child learn is receptive, before he able to express sound as language and to comprehend the meaning of words, Social response and development determined largely through interactions of the individual with his environment. As a child matures, his social contact becomes increasingly wider and wider. The factor that the affect the intellectual development, physical condition, sex and ones emotional state. Its not easy to designate accurately a childs emotion in early life because the expression of emotion is a subject experience and the most, we can only conclude what the child experiences at the time
Growth and development is one of the important subject of psychology. It is essential for every teacher and parents know the fundamentals of growth and development. Good, effective teaching and guidance depend on the study of growth and development. Effective learning takes place when learning situations are arranged in accordance with the growth and development.
At birth, the child is helpless. Gradually he develops and becomes independent. A teacher before preparing the curriculum must have a basis idea of the anticipated changes of the behavior undergoing at various stages.
Growth
Growth means an increase in size, height, weight, length, etc. which can be measured.
Development
Development implies changes in shape, form or structure resulting in improved working. It implies qualitative changes.
The principles of growth and development are described below.
(1) Development follows a pattern:
Development occurs in orderly manner and follows a certain sequence. For example, the human baby can stand before he walks and can draw a circle before he can draw a square. He babbles before he talks, he is dependent on others before he becomes self-dependent.
(2) Development proceeds from general to specific responses:
It moves from a generalized to localized behavior. The newborn infant moves its whole body at one time instead of moving only one part of it. It makes random kicking with its legs before it can coordinate the leg muscles well enough to crawl or to walk.
(3) Development is a continuous process:
Development does not occur in spurts. Growth continues from the moments of conception until the individual reaches maturity. It takes place at slow regular pace rather than by ‘leaps and bounds’.
Although development is a continuous process, yet the tempo of growth is not even during infancy and early years, growth moves swiftly. Later on, it slackens.
(4) Different aspects of growth develop at different rates
Neither all parts of the body grow at the same rate nor do all aspects of mental growth proceed equally. They reach maturity at different times.
(5) Most traits are correlated in development:
Generally, it is seen that the child whose intellectual development is above average is so in health size, sociability and special aptitudes.
(6) Growth is complex:
All of its aspects are closely interrelated. The child’s mental development is intimately related to his physical growth and its needs.
(7) Growth is a product of the interaction of the organism and environment:
Among the environmental factors one can mention nutrition, climate the conditions in the home, the type of social organization in which individual moves and lives.
(8) There are wide individual differences in growth:
Individual differences in growth are caused by differences in heredity and environment.
(9) Growth is both quantitative and qualitative:
These two aspects are inseparable. The child not only grows in ‘size’; he grows up or matures in structure and function too.
(10) Development is predictable:
It is possible for us to predict at an early age the range within which the mature development of the child is likely to fall. But mental development cannot be predicted with the same degree of accuracy.
Educational Significance
Education is not only a process and a product of growing; it means growing. Teachers and parents must know what children are capable of, what children are capable of, and what potentialities they possess. By knowing this, they can provide congenial environment, which are conducive to the maximum growth of children. Besides the teacher and parents must be helpful, sympathetic and encouraging to the students.
Bearing in mind the individual variations in growth, the school programmes must be adjusted accordingly. Good physical growth, through the provision of play, games and sports is conducive to effective intellectual development. On the other hand, malnutrition retards development. Therefore, teachers and parents help in cultivating among pupils habits of balanced eating. Because of ‘individual differences’ diversified development of specific talents, abilities and interests and varied co-curricular activities must be introduced in school curriculum.
Moreover, teachers and parents should not demand of pupils what is beyond their stage of growth.
Chromosomes and the genes carried by them transmit characteristic like intelligence, physical height ad emotionality from parents to offspring. Both hereditary and environment jointly determine the development of the behavior in a individual.
When the child is conceived, his hereditary becomes fixed. That means that the hereditary components in the form of traits inherited from both parents are already determined and whatever alterations may appear are largely the result of environment conditions
The period of prenatal development represents the period of the greatest growth in the whole life of the individual. For only a brief period of nine months, he grows to length approximately 20 inches more or less. The mother must extra careful especially the first three months of pregnancy for it is during these period that many vital parts of the body like the brain, the nervous system and the visceral organs are being formed.
The pattern of motor development are similar for all human species though not identical in time and degree. The first kind of language that the child learn is receptive, before he able to express sound as language and to comprehend the meaning of words, Social response and development determined largely through interactions of the individual with his environment. As a child matures, his social contact becomes increasingly wider and wider. The factor that the affect the intellectual development, physical condition, sex and ones emotional state. Its not easy to designate accurately a childs emotion in early life because the expression of emotion is a subject experience and the most, we can only conclude what the child experiences at the time
Growth and development is one of the important subject of psychology. It is essential for every teacher and parents know the fundamentals of growth and development. Good, effective teaching and guidance depend on the study of growth and development. Effective learning takes place when learning situations are arranged in accordance with the growth and development.
At birth, the child is helpless. Gradually he develops and becomes independent. A teacher before preparing the curriculum must have a basis idea of the anticipated changes of the behavior undergoing at various stages.
Growth
Growth means an increase in size, height, weight, length, etc. which can be measured.
Development
Development implies changes in shape, form or structure resulting in improved working. It implies qualitative changes.
The principles of growth and development are described below.
(1) Development follows a pattern:
Development occurs in orderly manner and follows a certain sequence. For example, the human baby can stand before he walks and can draw a circle before he can draw a square. He babbles before he talks, he is dependent on others before he becomes self-dependent.
(2) Development proceeds from general to specific responses:
It moves from a generalized to localized behavior. The newborn infant moves its whole body at one time instead of moving only one part of it. It makes random kicking with its legs before it can coordinate the leg muscles well enough to crawl or to walk.
(3) Development is a continuous process:
Development does not occur in spurts. Growth continues from the moments of conception until the individual reaches maturity. It takes place at slow regular pace rather than by ‘leaps and bounds’.
Although development is a continuous process, yet the tempo of growth is not even during infancy and early years, growth moves swiftly. Later on, it slackens.
(4) Different aspects of growth develop at different rates
Neither all parts of the body grow at the same rate nor do all aspects of mental growth proceed equally. They reach maturity at different times.
(5) Most traits are correlated in development:
Generally, it is seen that the child whose intellectual development is above average is so in health size, sociability and special aptitudes.
(6) Growth is complex:
All of its aspects are closely interrelated. The child’s mental development is intimately related to his physical growth and its needs.
(7) Growth is a product of the interaction of the organism and environment:
Among the environmental factors one can mention nutrition, climate the conditions in the home, the type of social organization in which individual moves and lives.
(8) There are wide individual differences in growth:
Individual differences in growth are caused by differences in heredity and environment.
(9) Growth is both quantitative and qualitative:
These two aspects are inseparable. The child not only grows in ‘size’; he grows up or matures in structure and function too.
(10) Development is predictable:
It is possible for us to predict at an early age the range within which the mature development of the child is likely to fall. But mental development cannot be predicted with the same degree of accuracy.
Educational Significance
Education is not only a process and a product of growing; it means growing. Teachers and parents must know what children are capable of, what children are capable of, and what potentialities they possess. By knowing this, they can provide congenial environment, which are conducive to the maximum growth of children. Besides the teacher and parents must be helpful, sympathetic and encouraging to the students.
Bearing in mind the individual variations in growth, the school programmes must be adjusted accordingly. Good physical growth, through the provision of play, games and sports is conducive to effective intellectual development. On the other hand, malnutrition retards development. Therefore, teachers and parents help in cultivating among pupils habits of balanced eating. Because of ‘individual differences’ diversified development of specific talents, abilities and interests and varied co-curricular activities must be introduced in school curriculum.
Moreover, teachers and parents should not demand of pupils what is beyond their stage of growth.
Labels:
General Psychology
The Psychological Basis of Behavior
A study of the physiology of the human body will pave the way toward an understanding of the complex human behavior. This approach in understanding behavior involves the study of the nervous system principally, the master tissue that integrates the mechanismof the human body form the receptor, afferent neuron, adjustor or associative neurons, efferent neurons and effectors.
The major components of the nervous system is the brain which is the center of intelligence, memory and personality, The spinal cord, the peripheral nervous system and the other nerve structures link the brain with the outside world and the various parts of the body.
A special branch of this system called the autonomic nervous system regulates the internal activities of the body, like the flow of blood, the movements of the digestive tract, the secretion of the digestive and endocrine
glands and the other internal unconscious automatics activities of the body
The cranial and spinal nerves from the peripheral nervous system and the action of the afferent neurons form this region is to conduct the nerve implulses(stimulation) to and from the cental axis.
Physiological reaction therefore includes the following nervous integration: 1. Reception of stimulation form exteroceptors, interoceptors, and proprioceptors; 2. The operation centers nd tracts in the coordination of nerve impulses; 3. The function of muscles and glands.
The major components of the nervous system is the brain which is the center of intelligence, memory and personality, The spinal cord, the peripheral nervous system and the other nerve structures link the brain with the outside world and the various parts of the body.
A special branch of this system called the autonomic nervous system regulates the internal activities of the body, like the flow of blood, the movements of the digestive tract, the secretion of the digestive and endocrine
glands and the other internal unconscious automatics activities of the body
The cranial and spinal nerves from the peripheral nervous system and the action of the afferent neurons form this region is to conduct the nerve implulses(stimulation) to and from the cental axis.
Physiological reaction therefore includes the following nervous integration: 1. Reception of stimulation form exteroceptors, interoceptors, and proprioceptors; 2. The operation centers nd tracts in the coordination of nerve impulses; 3. The function of muscles and glands.
Labels:
General Psychology
Motivated and Emotional Behavior
Emotions are motive forces that are closely related to behavior. Various approaches have been made to describe the role of the emotion in human affair, to discover theories that can adequately explain this behavior and categorize them into precise pigeon-hole types all of which given credence to the complexity of this kind of behavior.
The proper management of ones emotion consist of exercising the right amount of control and expression to achieve emotional health. The development of the emotion is largely dependent and influenced by two factors: maturation, during yhe early years and by learning, and evinced by cultural differences in the manner and occasion of emotional expression.
Affective experiences vary from mild to intense, pleasant and unpleasant. The gradations of emotion is illustrated by the attitude characterized by excessive emotion and neurotic responses,i.e.,an inferiority complex which is excessive self-depreciation acquired through deep religious beliefs or any similar cause.
Affective experiences vary from mild to intense, pleasant and unpleasant. The gradations of emotion is illustrated by the following:
1. Annoyance, anger, rage
2. Pleasure, happiness, joy, ecstacy
3. Surprise, amazement, astonishment
4. apprehension, fear, panic, terror
5. Gloominess, dejection, sorrow, grief
6. Dislike, digust, loathing
The proper management of ones emotion consist of exercising the right amount of control and expression to achieve emotional health. The development of the emotion is largely dependent and influenced by two factors: maturation, during yhe early years and by learning, and evinced by cultural differences in the manner and occasion of emotional expression.
Affective experiences vary from mild to intense, pleasant and unpleasant. The gradations of emotion is illustrated by the attitude characterized by excessive emotion and neurotic responses,i.e.,an inferiority complex which is excessive self-depreciation acquired through deep religious beliefs or any similar cause.
Affective experiences vary from mild to intense, pleasant and unpleasant. The gradations of emotion is illustrated by the following:
1. Annoyance, anger, rage
2. Pleasure, happiness, joy, ecstacy
3. Surprise, amazement, astonishment
4. apprehension, fear, panic, terror
5. Gloominess, dejection, sorrow, grief
6. Dislike, digust, loathing
Labels:
General Psychology
Sensation and Perception of Psychology
Behavior is the result of the integration of information acquired from the environment, its analysis and the interpretation and the corresponding reaction or response made. We have seen how the different body receptors react to specific kind of energy (the stimulus) generating nerve impulses. We have dealt with the dimension of each sensory experiences -visual, auditory, gustatory olfactory, tactual, kinesthetic, and equilabratory.
Evidence propounded by the different theories serve as compromise explanation to substantiate all facts or speculations about each sensory process input (perception) including many perceptual experiences dependent on one or several senses- and including ESP- a subject thathas aroused many a “tempest in a teapot” because of the speculative and unsettled issues involved in its study.
Evidence propounded by the different theories serve as compromise explanation to substantiate all facts or speculations about each sensory process input (perception) including many perceptual experiences dependent on one or several senses- and including ESP- a subject thathas aroused many a “tempest in a teapot” because of the speculative and unsettled issues involved in its study.
Labels:
General Psychology
Learning and Human Abilities
One of the most fundamental of human activities is learning. It includes the development and modification of tendencies governing psychological functions. The scientific story of learning involves a wide scopes and encompasses varied view points. It can be studied from the developmental, interactive, associative and cognitive levels
Retention of what is learned is governed by varied factors contributing to efficiency. Among these factor include motivation, duration of practice, transfer of learning, knowledge of results, meaningfulness of materials, the use of devices, sense modalities, degrees of overlearning and active participation in the learning task.
Remembering and forgetting are form of behavior explained from different standpoints bu such theories as Passive Decay Thru Disuse, Systematic Distortion of Memory Traces, Interference Effect and Motivated Forgetting.
Thinking which utilizes symbolic representations of thing or events falls into two categories: 1) Associative (Undirected) thinking; and 2) Directed Thinking and includes such activities as autistic thinking, daydreaming, nightdreaming, imagination, reveries, problem-solving, reasoning, creativity and brainstorming.
Retention of what is learned is governed by varied factors contributing to efficiency. Among these factor include motivation, duration of practice, transfer of learning, knowledge of results, meaningfulness of materials, the use of devices, sense modalities, degrees of overlearning and active participation in the learning task.
Remembering and forgetting are form of behavior explained from different standpoints bu such theories as Passive Decay Thru Disuse, Systematic Distortion of Memory Traces, Interference Effect and Motivated Forgetting.
Thinking which utilizes symbolic representations of thing or events falls into two categories: 1) Associative (Undirected) thinking; and 2) Directed Thinking and includes such activities as autistic thinking, daydreaming, nightdreaming, imagination, reveries, problem-solving, reasoning, creativity and brainstorming.
Labels:
General Psychology
Individual Differences and Intelligence
That the individuals vary in both biological and psychological trait can be attributed to many influences – biological, environmental, cultural, social and interrelation of all these factors.
The recognition that individual differ from each other that are unique has challenged many educators in their task of curriculum-making and in the development of techniques that make prediction necessary – hence, the development of test ( intelligence, aptitude, achievement, interest, personality) and measure of central tendencies, ( mean, medium, mode) and the measures of variation ( range, standard deviation and mean deviation).
Attempt to meet individual differences have devised; among them: homogeneous grouping, supervised study, special school, teaching techniques, and enrichment.
Intelligence is one area where individuals manifest differences. Alfred Binet, who advised the first intelligence test came up with a method or formula for arriving at the IQ (INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT), one method of measuring intelligence. The other method are through the MA (mental age) and the Percentile Rank.
Studied have tried to trace intelligence to various sources. Hereditary, Environment, Sex, Social condition, race and geographical location have offered factual basis for such intellectual differences.
The normal curve which mathematical concept marking the limit of distribution has signified information regarding the distribution of traits along a continuum. The extremes which are apparently few (making up about 1/3 of the population), are represented by the mentally retarded (moron, imbecile, idiots in descending order) and the mentally superior at the other end.
The mentally retarded are the distinguished from the mentally defective in that first are such from birth while the second are such due to environmental condition (illness, injury, physical defect).
While the mentally retarded have aroused a lot of attention, the mentally gifted, on the consumption that they can take care of themselves and are the favored few, have apparently merited less attention comparatively.
Studies of the gifted have belief the popular notion that the gifted are qeer, unadjusted, emotionally unstable and physical weaklings. Like normal population, they have they share of failures, in the sense that they have not fully realized their potentialities – although their IQ’s have remained high.
The recognition that individual differ from each other that are unique has challenged many educators in their task of curriculum-making and in the development of techniques that make prediction necessary – hence, the development of test ( intelligence, aptitude, achievement, interest, personality) and measure of central tendencies, ( mean, medium, mode) and the measures of variation ( range, standard deviation and mean deviation).
Attempt to meet individual differences have devised; among them: homogeneous grouping, supervised study, special school, teaching techniques, and enrichment.
Intelligence is one area where individuals manifest differences. Alfred Binet, who advised the first intelligence test came up with a method or formula for arriving at the IQ (INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT), one method of measuring intelligence. The other method are through the MA (mental age) and the Percentile Rank.
Studied have tried to trace intelligence to various sources. Hereditary, Environment, Sex, Social condition, race and geographical location have offered factual basis for such intellectual differences.
The normal curve which mathematical concept marking the limit of distribution has signified information regarding the distribution of traits along a continuum. The extremes which are apparently few (making up about 1/3 of the population), are represented by the mentally retarded (moron, imbecile, idiots in descending order) and the mentally superior at the other end.
The mentally retarded are the distinguished from the mentally defective in that first are such from birth while the second are such due to environmental condition (illness, injury, physical defect).
While the mentally retarded have aroused a lot of attention, the mentally gifted, on the consumption that they can take care of themselves and are the favored few, have apparently merited less attention comparatively.
Studies of the gifted have belief the popular notion that the gifted are qeer, unadjusted, emotionally unstable and physical weaklings. Like normal population, they have they share of failures, in the sense that they have not fully realized their potentialities – although their IQ’s have remained high.
Labels:
General Psychology
Personality Development and Mental Health
Personality has been aquated with stable psychological structures like physical, intellectual, social, moral, and spiritual ones, which dispose the individual to act the way he does.
Personality structure and how its work cannot be directly observed but merely inferred from behavior.
Any description of personality involved theoretical statement about its unit. Personality theories come under various classification depending upon the author’s point of emphasis. Prominent among these is Frued’s Psychoanalytical theory with its sub-theories on structure, development and dynamics.
The determinants of personality are, according to one author – inherited predisposition, abilities, family and home environment and culture.
Many condition in life make adjustment process necessary. Adjustment involves doing what is necessary to gratify a need, drive or motive or to meet physical or social demand. The processes of coping with (or adjustment) threats or frustration are varied. Among these are defense mechanism which may be regarded as reaction to situation forces.
The psychotherapeutic techniques include Freud’s free association, Roger’s nondirective counseling, group therapy, the use of learning theories like the principles of counter-conditioning and the principle of the reinforcement, psychodrama, role playing and eclectic approach.
Personality structure and how its work cannot be directly observed but merely inferred from behavior.
Any description of personality involved theoretical statement about its unit. Personality theories come under various classification depending upon the author’s point of emphasis. Prominent among these is Frued’s Psychoanalytical theory with its sub-theories on structure, development and dynamics.
The determinants of personality are, according to one author – inherited predisposition, abilities, family and home environment and culture.
Many condition in life make adjustment process necessary. Adjustment involves doing what is necessary to gratify a need, drive or motive or to meet physical or social demand. The processes of coping with (or adjustment) threats or frustration are varied. Among these are defense mechanism which may be regarded as reaction to situation forces.
The psychotherapeutic techniques include Freud’s free association, Roger’s nondirective counseling, group therapy, the use of learning theories like the principles of counter-conditioning and the principle of the reinforcement, psychodrama, role playing and eclectic approach.
Labels:
General Psychology
Little Dictionary of Psychological Terms
Abnormal: diverging widely from the normal; descriptive of behavior which deviatesmarkedly from what is considerednormative, healhty or psychologically desirable from an adjustmental point of view. The term often carries a strong connotation of undesirabilty or pathology, but it is also occasionally employed to characterized extreme superiority or supernormality.
Amnesia: loss of memory either partial or total, due to any cause.
Anorexia: a pathological loss of appetite. it is a common symptom of mental disorder.
Acrophobia: fear of heights.
Adrenalin: a proprietary name for epinephrine, a hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla.
Autism: thinking which is governed by personal needs or by self.
Behavior: any response (s) made by an organism, specially parts of a total response pattern, an act or an activity , a movement or complex of movements.
Behavior therapy: a form of a psychotherapy which attempt to eliminate or modify problem behavior by the use of classical conditioning and instrumental learning method.
Brain - the mass of nervous tissue within the skull.
Brain center: any interconnedted group of neurons in the brain which perform a specific function. Example the speech center in the cerebral cortex functions in the motor speech.
Brain lesion: damage to the brain cause by injury, disease, or surgical procedures.
Brain Stem: portion of the brain remaining after cerebrum and cerebellum are removed.
Brain waves: the rythmic spontaneous electrical discharges of the living brain.
Cerebellum: the smaller of the two main division of the brain, the cerebellum is an important organ of motor coordination.
Cerebral Palsy: a form of a paralysis caused by a lesion in the brain, It is frequentlya congenital defect in children.
Congenital - pertaining to something (ussually a condition or characteristic) which has it origin at the time of birth or during the fatal development. Congenital is to be distinguished from hereditary which denotes an origin in progenitors.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): a complex biochemical found in the nuclei of living cells. The chromosomal DNA is believed to be the material out of which genes are made. It has been suggested that the molecules of DNA constitute a kind of code or blueprint, which shape tje chemical materials of cells thru the medium of ribonucleic acid (RNA), which molecules serve as "messengers" or "contractors" to carry out the instructions supplied by DNA.
Day Dream: a walking fantasy or revery. Daydreaming is frequently wish fulfilling in function and differs from night dreaming in that the expression of wishes is not hidden.
Deafness: partial or complete inability to hear. Total deafness is the inability to hear all sound regardless of their loudness. Partial deafness may involve a decreased sensitivity to the entire range of the sound or it may involve only inability to hear certain pitches. Adventious deafness is caused by injury to the ear, as opposed to congenital deafness which is caused by the developmental defects and central or cortical deafness which result from injury to the areas of hearing in the cerebral cortex.
Defense Mechanism: any behavior pattern which protect the psyche from anxiety, shame, or guilt. Some common defense mecahnism are repression, regression, projection, indentification, fantasy, conpensation, sublimation reaction-formation and aggression.
Deja Vu: the illusion of familiarity in the strange place. It is believed to be due to the presence of familiar but subthreshold cues. Example, in walking in a strange town, some features may be familiar to those experienced elsewhere - a church steeple, a chain store, a shop front or two. As one glances at these, the presence of a subtle but familiar odor may sufficient to trigger the deja vu.
Delusion: a false belief which cannot be modified by reasoning or a demonstration of the facts. Persistent and systematic delusions are characteristic of psychotic states. Delusion should be distinguished from illusion which is a distorted perception and from hallucination which is a false perception.
Depression: in the normal individual, a state despondency characterized by feeling of inadequacy, lowered activity, and perssimism about the future. In pathological cases, an extreme state of unresponsiveness to stimuli, together with self-deprecation, delusion of inadequacy and hopelessness.
Ear : the organ which contain the receptors for hearing. It is divided into three main parts, the outer, middle and inner ears.
Egoism: the tendency for one to behave for self-advantage.
Embryo: the earliest stage of development. In man, the embryonic period is held to extend from the time of conception to (variously) between 6-12 weeks of intra-uterine life. The fetal stage follows the embryonic.
Amnesia: loss of memory either partial or total, due to any cause.
Anorexia: a pathological loss of appetite. it is a common symptom of mental disorder.
Acrophobia: fear of heights.
Adrenalin: a proprietary name for epinephrine, a hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla.
Autism: thinking which is governed by personal needs or by self.
Behavior: any response (s) made by an organism, specially parts of a total response pattern, an act or an activity , a movement or complex of movements.
Behavior therapy: a form of a psychotherapy which attempt to eliminate or modify problem behavior by the use of classical conditioning and instrumental learning method.
Brain - the mass of nervous tissue within the skull.
Brain center: any interconnedted group of neurons in the brain which perform a specific function. Example the speech center in the cerebral cortex functions in the motor speech.
Brain lesion: damage to the brain cause by injury, disease, or surgical procedures.
Brain Stem: portion of the brain remaining after cerebrum and cerebellum are removed.
Brain waves: the rythmic spontaneous electrical discharges of the living brain.
Cerebellum: the smaller of the two main division of the brain, the cerebellum is an important organ of motor coordination.
Cerebral Palsy: a form of a paralysis caused by a lesion in the brain, It is frequentlya congenital defect in children.
Congenital - pertaining to something (ussually a condition or characteristic) which has it origin at the time of birth or during the fatal development. Congenital is to be distinguished from hereditary which denotes an origin in progenitors.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): a complex biochemical found in the nuclei of living cells. The chromosomal DNA is believed to be the material out of which genes are made. It has been suggested that the molecules of DNA constitute a kind of code or blueprint, which shape tje chemical materials of cells thru the medium of ribonucleic acid (RNA), which molecules serve as "messengers" or "contractors" to carry out the instructions supplied by DNA.
Day Dream: a walking fantasy or revery. Daydreaming is frequently wish fulfilling in function and differs from night dreaming in that the expression of wishes is not hidden.
Deafness: partial or complete inability to hear. Total deafness is the inability to hear all sound regardless of their loudness. Partial deafness may involve a decreased sensitivity to the entire range of the sound or it may involve only inability to hear certain pitches. Adventious deafness is caused by injury to the ear, as opposed to congenital deafness which is caused by the developmental defects and central or cortical deafness which result from injury to the areas of hearing in the cerebral cortex.
Defense Mechanism: any behavior pattern which protect the psyche from anxiety, shame, or guilt. Some common defense mecahnism are repression, regression, projection, indentification, fantasy, conpensation, sublimation reaction-formation and aggression.
Deja Vu: the illusion of familiarity in the strange place. It is believed to be due to the presence of familiar but subthreshold cues. Example, in walking in a strange town, some features may be familiar to those experienced elsewhere - a church steeple, a chain store, a shop front or two. As one glances at these, the presence of a subtle but familiar odor may sufficient to trigger the deja vu.
Delusion: a false belief which cannot be modified by reasoning or a demonstration of the facts. Persistent and systematic delusions are characteristic of psychotic states. Delusion should be distinguished from illusion which is a distorted perception and from hallucination which is a false perception.
Depression: in the normal individual, a state despondency characterized by feeling of inadequacy, lowered activity, and perssimism about the future. In pathological cases, an extreme state of unresponsiveness to stimuli, together with self-deprecation, delusion of inadequacy and hopelessness.
Ear : the organ which contain the receptors for hearing. It is divided into three main parts, the outer, middle and inner ears.
Egoism: the tendency for one to behave for self-advantage.
Embryo: the earliest stage of development. In man, the embryonic period is held to extend from the time of conception to (variously) between 6-12 weeks of intra-uterine life. The fetal stage follows the embryonic.
Labels:
General Psychology
Definiton of DNA
The DNA are infinitesimally, tiny molecules found in evry living cell. In a fertilized human egg, all the DNA contents would weigh only about two ten trillionths of an ounce taken from each parents. One DNA molecule is a helix looking like a coiled ladder tightly packed in a single cell. It carries information much like a code consisting of a four basic control chemicals- adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine.
The rungs of the ladder are amde up to two codes units, the same two invariably pairing with one another. In terms of the alphabet. A pairs only with B and C with D in the different sequence which are limitless in variance so much so that multiple individual variations are possible.
This is one of the same way in the million of cells in the body. Another feat it accomplishes is the protein manufacture within the cell- so essential in providing blood and muscle to the body.
Each cell simutaneously make different kinds of protein. Protein are composed of 20 amino acids and for each protein a set of direction is carried on a gene of the long DNA molecule.
The rungs of the ladder are amde up to two codes units, the same two invariably pairing with one another. In terms of the alphabet. A pairs only with B and C with D in the different sequence which are limitless in variance so much so that multiple individual variations are possible.
This is one of the same way in the million of cells in the body. Another feat it accomplishes is the protein manufacture within the cell- so essential in providing blood and muscle to the body.
Each cell simutaneously make different kinds of protein. Protein are composed of 20 amino acids and for each protein a set of direction is carried on a gene of the long DNA molecule.
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DNA,
General Psychology
How Twinning and Multiple Births Happen
Identical twin result when an ovum splits into two after fertilization. They may also called single ovum or monozygotic twins. Since each containidentical sets of chromosomes, they are always of the same sex both girls or both boys.
Occasionally they maybe mirror image of each other in which case, the right side of the twin would resemble the left side of the other. There is no definite hereditary background for the occurance of single ovum twins.
The fertilization of seperate ove or of a single ovum may result in twin pregnancies, and are called double ovum, dizygotic or fraternal twins. There is a definite hereditary background in the double ovum twins. The frequency of twinning is affected by age as well as age and hereditary.
Plural births may arise from the fertilization of a single ovum or multiple ova up to the number of fetuses produced by conception. In a quintuplet pregnancy for example, three may develop from one ovum while the other two from seperate ovum. The famous Dionne quintuplets in Canada in May 1934 were all derived from the same ovum.
Occasionally they maybe mirror image of each other in which case, the right side of the twin would resemble the left side of the other. There is no definite hereditary background for the occurance of single ovum twins.
The fertilization of seperate ove or of a single ovum may result in twin pregnancies, and are called double ovum, dizygotic or fraternal twins. There is a definite hereditary background in the double ovum twins. The frequency of twinning is affected by age as well as age and hereditary.
Plural births may arise from the fertilization of a single ovum or multiple ova up to the number of fetuses produced by conception. In a quintuplet pregnancy for example, three may develop from one ovum while the other two from seperate ovum. The famous Dionne quintuplets in Canada in May 1934 were all derived from the same ovum.
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General Psychology
What are Test-tube Babies
It was Aldous Huxley in his Brave New world who peredicted a world where a scientific elite totalitarian "Predistinators" create test-tube babies un the assembly line and predetermine mental and physical characteristic.
In 1940, Dr. John Rock of Harvard University obtained ripe eggs from females and fertilization these in test tube. With his experiments, he had invaded one of " Mother Nature's most cherished rituals".
In 1950, Dr. Landrum B. Shettles, an American gynaecologist first conclusively demonstrated in vitro ("in glass") fertilization. He pierced the ovaries of his patients with a syringe and aspirated some of egg from the follicles. He placed this in a culture medium taken from the follicular fluid excised from tiny pieces of the tubal fimbrae (projections at the end of fallopian tube)
When the egg was ready for fertilization, he placed it in a person in another culture medium - the ovalation mucosa from the mid-cervical canal of a woman donor. Into this, he inserted yhe sperms, the tubal mucosa and the tubal fimbrae- the components the sperm naturally encounters inside. He grew this to the 64 cell stage (blastocyst) when the egg normally attaches itself to the uterus.
In 1940, Dr. John Rock of Harvard University obtained ripe eggs from females and fertilization these in test tube. With his experiments, he had invaded one of " Mother Nature's most cherished rituals".
In 1950, Dr. Landrum B. Shettles, an American gynaecologist first conclusively demonstrated in vitro ("in glass") fertilization. He pierced the ovaries of his patients with a syringe and aspirated some of egg from the follicles. He placed this in a culture medium taken from the follicular fluid excised from tiny pieces of the tubal fimbrae (projections at the end of fallopian tube)
When the egg was ready for fertilization, he placed it in a person in another culture medium - the ovalation mucosa from the mid-cervical canal of a woman donor. Into this, he inserted yhe sperms, the tubal mucosa and the tubal fimbrae- the components the sperm naturally encounters inside. He grew this to the 64 cell stage (blastocyst) when the egg normally attaches itself to the uterus.
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General Psychology
Science and Psychology
Science, just when we can call any subject a science? A science is a branch of knowledge or study dealing with a body of facts or thruths systematically arranged and showing the operation of general laws.
Psychology, is a science that gather facts systematically, organizes them into general principles and formulates theories out of these factual data.
In sciences as in Psychology, theories are formulated. When facts are gathered to explain mutation, we form biological theories whereas when we attempt to explain mutationas a causative factor of behavior, we formulate instead, a psychological theory.
In the scinces, as in psychology, these theories are constantly revised in the light of newly researched facts that may contradict earlier theories, a great deal of scientific and psychological endeavor is directed toward the acquisistion of new research data. Observable events called phenomena are collected through research. These are painstakingly and carefully measured by the psychologist with precise and accurately measuring devices which preludes guesswork.
Psychology, is a science that gather facts systematically, organizes them into general principles and formulates theories out of these factual data.
In sciences as in Psychology, theories are formulated. When facts are gathered to explain mutation, we form biological theories whereas when we attempt to explain mutationas a causative factor of behavior, we formulate instead, a psychological theory.
In the scinces, as in psychology, these theories are constantly revised in the light of newly researched facts that may contradict earlier theories, a great deal of scientific and psychological endeavor is directed toward the acquisistion of new research data. Observable events called phenomena are collected through research. These are painstakingly and carefully measured by the psychologist with precise and accurately measuring devices which preludes guesswork.
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General Psychology
Definition of Behavior
The second important element in the defination of psychology emphasizes "a study of behavior", Behavior as defined psychologically, refers to action or activities of the individual as matters of psychological study. The term actually covers more than it actually conveys. It may mean a lot of things.
While behavior most often refers to whats is outwardly or overtly manifested, as in the raising of one's hand, it may also mean those activities that are hidden or covert - those not visible to the naked eye. For instance, a clenched fist behind one's back is behavior not directly visible but behavior that is nevertheless within the realm of psychological investigation.
Behavior maybe concious or unconcious, acts may be within the level of one's awareness or deeply embedded in one's subconcious, that is, unconcious. We may fall in love and be very much aware of the feeling, of the pounding of our heart and the increase in our pulse rate. We may harbor an instense hatred toward someone we barely know and know not why we feel so.
The first is concious behavior, tha latter, unconcious, and both are subjects of investigation in psychology.
Some acts also maybe rational, voluntary and involuntary. Rational exercise with sanity or reason. When a person express his feeling of admiration for a person he admire, he is acting with a reason. He express his preference for someone or something he admires. Acts which are commited for no apparent reason or explanation - as when a man losses his sanity and laugh at nobody or nothing rational and irrational acts.
Voluntary, done with full volition or will. When a student enrolls for a course in psychology, he does it with the use of his will. H ediscriminate, chooses and decides.
Involuntary, processes within the body that go on even while we are sleep or awake are involuntary, these are like behavioral processes that fall under psychological study - like respiration, circulation, and digestion.
While behavior most often refers to whats is outwardly or overtly manifested, as in the raising of one's hand, it may also mean those activities that are hidden or covert - those not visible to the naked eye. For instance, a clenched fist behind one's back is behavior not directly visible but behavior that is nevertheless within the realm of psychological investigation.
Behavior maybe concious or unconcious, acts may be within the level of one's awareness or deeply embedded in one's subconcious, that is, unconcious. We may fall in love and be very much aware of the feeling, of the pounding of our heart and the increase in our pulse rate. We may harbor an instense hatred toward someone we barely know and know not why we feel so.
The first is concious behavior, tha latter, unconcious, and both are subjects of investigation in psychology.
Some acts also maybe rational, voluntary and involuntary. Rational exercise with sanity or reason. When a person express his feeling of admiration for a person he admire, he is acting with a reason. He express his preference for someone or something he admires. Acts which are commited for no apparent reason or explanation - as when a man losses his sanity and laugh at nobody or nothing rational and irrational acts.
Voluntary, done with full volition or will. When a student enrolls for a course in psychology, he does it with the use of his will. H ediscriminate, chooses and decides.
Involuntary, processes within the body that go on even while we are sleep or awake are involuntary, these are like behavioral processes that fall under psychological study - like respiration, circulation, and digestion.
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General Psychology
Psychology and its Branches
General Psychology: this field present the basic and fundamental principles of human behavior. It explains the HOW and WHY of a person's from scientific viewpoint.
Comparetive Psychology: this deal with the beahavior and mental processes of different species. It makes a comparative study of the behavior of the different animals of all degrees of complexity from protozoans to primates - and hence is sometimes called "Animals Psychology". Its aim is to discover in rhe pattern of behavior of subhuman organism, clues to enrich the knowledge of human behavior. Its overlap with the experimental and psychological study of behavior
Genetic or Developmental Psychology: this is a field of study regarding human development and the inheritance and development of traits and abilities. Growth is traced form the earliest beginning till old age. The important considerations are yhe different stages of bodily cevelopment, intelligence, abilities and general behavior.
Dynamic Psychology: (psychology of personality) mental phenomena are studied in terms of internals drives and motives as causes of behavior.
Physiological Psychology: this is a study relating bodily processes to behavior, It studies the function of the nervous system and other bodily structures in the behavior of organisms.
Abnormal Psychology: this deals with the behavioral disorders like physical handicaps, nervous disorder, speech impairments, mental aberrations, and others. The study covers alcoholism, drug addiction, crime and juvenile diliquency.
Comparetive Psychology: this deal with the beahavior and mental processes of different species. It makes a comparative study of the behavior of the different animals of all degrees of complexity from protozoans to primates - and hence is sometimes called "Animals Psychology". Its aim is to discover in rhe pattern of behavior of subhuman organism, clues to enrich the knowledge of human behavior. Its overlap with the experimental and psychological study of behavior
Genetic or Developmental Psychology: this is a field of study regarding human development and the inheritance and development of traits and abilities. Growth is traced form the earliest beginning till old age. The important considerations are yhe different stages of bodily cevelopment, intelligence, abilities and general behavior.
Dynamic Psychology: (psychology of personality) mental phenomena are studied in terms of internals drives and motives as causes of behavior.
Physiological Psychology: this is a study relating bodily processes to behavior, It studies the function of the nervous system and other bodily structures in the behavior of organisms.
Abnormal Psychology: this deals with the behavioral disorders like physical handicaps, nervous disorder, speech impairments, mental aberrations, and others. The study covers alcoholism, drug addiction, crime and juvenile diliquency.
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General Psychology
The Beginnings of Psychology: Philosophy and Physiology
While psychology did not emerge as a separate discipline until the late 1800s, its earliest history can be traced back to the time of the early Greeks. During the 17th-century, the French philosopher Rene Descartes introduced the idea of dualism, which asserted that the mind and body were two separate entities that interact to form the human experience. Many other issues still debated by psychologists today, such as the relative contributions of nature vs. nurture, are rooted in these early philosophical traditions.
So what makes psychology different from philosophy? While early philosophers relied on methods such as observation and logic, today’s psychologists utilize scientific methodologies to study and draw conclusions about human thought and behavior. Physiology also contributed to psychology’s eventual emergence as a scientific discipline. Early physiology research on the brain and behavior had a dramatic impact on psychology, ultimately contributing to the application of scientific methodologies to the study of human thought and behavior.
German experimentalist Hermann Ebbinghaus, suggests a key idea about the history of psychology: though psychology is relatively new as a formal academic discipline, scholars have pondered the questions that psychologists ask for thousands of years. According to psychology historian Morton Hunt, an experiment performed by the King of Egypt, as far back as the seventh century B.C., can be considered the first psychology experiment (Hunt, 1993, p. 1).
The king wanted to test whether or not Egyptian was the oldest civilization on earth. His idea was that, if children were raised in isolation from infancy and were given no instruction in language of any kind, then the language they spontaneously spoke would be of the original civilization of man -- hopefully, Egyptian. The experiment, itself, was flawed, but the king deserves credit for his idea that thoughts and language come from the mind and his ambition to test such an idea.
Typically, historians point to the writings of ancient Greek philosophers, such Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, as the first significant work to be rich in psychology-related thought. They considered important questions like what is free will, how does the mind work, and what is the relationship of people to their society. For hundreds of years, philosophers continued to wrestle with these and related questions, and psychology eventually sprouted from the roots of philosophy. Psychology also derived its origins from physiology, another subject that had been studied for thousands of years. In fact, the father of psychology, William Wundt, was originally a professor of physiology
So what makes psychology different from philosophy? While early philosophers relied on methods such as observation and logic, today’s psychologists utilize scientific methodologies to study and draw conclusions about human thought and behavior. Physiology also contributed to psychology’s eventual emergence as a scientific discipline. Early physiology research on the brain and behavior had a dramatic impact on psychology, ultimately contributing to the application of scientific methodologies to the study of human thought and behavior.
German experimentalist Hermann Ebbinghaus, suggests a key idea about the history of psychology: though psychology is relatively new as a formal academic discipline, scholars have pondered the questions that psychologists ask for thousands of years. According to psychology historian Morton Hunt, an experiment performed by the King of Egypt, as far back as the seventh century B.C., can be considered the first psychology experiment (Hunt, 1993, p. 1).
The king wanted to test whether or not Egyptian was the oldest civilization on earth. His idea was that, if children were raised in isolation from infancy and were given no instruction in language of any kind, then the language they spontaneously spoke would be of the original civilization of man -- hopefully, Egyptian. The experiment, itself, was flawed, but the king deserves credit for his idea that thoughts and language come from the mind and his ambition to test such an idea.
Typically, historians point to the writings of ancient Greek philosophers, such Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, as the first significant work to be rich in psychology-related thought. They considered important questions like what is free will, how does the mind work, and what is the relationship of people to their society. For hundreds of years, philosophers continued to wrestle with these and related questions, and psychology eventually sprouted from the roots of philosophy. Psychology also derived its origins from physiology, another subject that had been studied for thousands of years. In fact, the father of psychology, William Wundt, was originally a professor of physiology
Labels:
General Psychology
The Brain - The Central Nervous System
Cerebrum: for sense perception, voluntary movements , learning, remembering, thinking, emotion, conciousness, personality integration.
Hypothalamus: control of visceral and somatic functions as temperature and metabolism.
Thalamus: the way station for impulses coming up the spinal cord to the cerebrum.
Midbrain: a conduction and switching center; pupillary light reflex
Cerebellum: for muscle tone, body balance, coordination of voluntary movements (as of fingers and thumb).
Medulla: has control over breathing, swallowing, digestion, heartbeat.
Reticular Formation: for the arousal and alertness of the organism, the change from the sleep to wakefulness.
Corpus Collosum: contains fibers connecting the two brain hemisphere
Brain Areas
Motor area: the body is represented in approximately upside-down movement form. Movements on the right side of the body originate thru stimulation of the left hemisphere.
Body-sense area: (in the parietal lobe) the lower extremeties are represented high on the area of the opposite hemisphere.
Visual area: (in the occpital lobe), damage in the left hemisphere will result in blind areas in the left side of both eyes.
Audiotary area: both ears are totally represented on both sides so thst loss of one temporal lobe has very little effect on hearing.
Speech area: the motor speech area (Broca's speech area) controls the tongue and jaws. It is located in the right hemisphere of the left handed person and vice versa - according to conventional interpretation.
Association areas: (areas of the brain not accounted for), bring together phenomena involving more than one sense.
Smell area: just below the frontal - near the temporal lobe.
Taste area: located behind the central fissure at the lower part of the side of the brain.
Hypothalamus: control of visceral and somatic functions as temperature and metabolism.
Thalamus: the way station for impulses coming up the spinal cord to the cerebrum.
Midbrain: a conduction and switching center; pupillary light reflex
Cerebellum: for muscle tone, body balance, coordination of voluntary movements (as of fingers and thumb).
Medulla: has control over breathing, swallowing, digestion, heartbeat.
Reticular Formation: for the arousal and alertness of the organism, the change from the sleep to wakefulness.
Corpus Collosum: contains fibers connecting the two brain hemisphere
Brain Areas
Motor area: the body is represented in approximately upside-down movement form. Movements on the right side of the body originate thru stimulation of the left hemisphere.
Body-sense area: (in the parietal lobe) the lower extremeties are represented high on the area of the opposite hemisphere.
Visual area: (in the occpital lobe), damage in the left hemisphere will result in blind areas in the left side of both eyes.
Audiotary area: both ears are totally represented on both sides so thst loss of one temporal lobe has very little effect on hearing.
Speech area: the motor speech area (Broca's speech area) controls the tongue and jaws. It is located in the right hemisphere of the left handed person and vice versa - according to conventional interpretation.
Association areas: (areas of the brain not accounted for), bring together phenomena involving more than one sense.
Smell area: just below the frontal - near the temporal lobe.
Taste area: located behind the central fissure at the lower part of the side of the brain.
Labels:
General Psychology
Psychology: Structuralism vs. Functionalism
During the first decades of psychology, two main schools of thought dominated the field: structuralism and functionalism. Structuralism was a system of psychology developed by Edward Bradford Titchener, an American psychologist who studied under Wilhelm Wundt. Structuralists believed that the task of psychology is to identify the basic elements of consciousness in much the same way that physicists break down the basic particles of matter. For example, Titchener identified four elements in the sensation of taste: sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. The main method of investigation in structuralism was introspection. The influence of structuralism in psychology faded after Titchener’s death in 1927.
In contradiction to the structuralist movement, William James promoted a school of thought known as functionalism, the belief that the real task of psychology is to investigate the function, or purpose, of consciousness rather than its structure. James was highly influenced by Darwin’s evolutionary theory that all characteristics of a species must serve some adaptive purpose. Functionalism enjoyed widespread appeal in the United States. Its three main leaders were James Rowland Angell, a student of James; John Dewey, who was also one of the foremost American philosophers and educators; and Harvey A. Carr, a psychologist at the University of Chicago.
In their efforts to understand human behavioral processes, the functional psychologists developed the technique of longitudinal research, which consists of interviewing, testing, and observing one person over a long period of time. Such a system permits the psychologist to observe and record the person’s development and how he or she reacts to different circumstances
Shaped by Wundt's ideas, structuralism was based on the notion that the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements and investigate how these elements are related (c.f. physics), hence the study of sensations, feelings and images as components of conscious experience. Structuralists depend on the method of introspection.
Architected by William James (1842-1910), functionalists believed that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure. Such notion was derived from Darwin's theories of natural selection, which suggest that all characteristics of a species (e.g. consciousness of human) should serve some purpose as otherwise they wont be selected over time by nature.
Functionalists argue that consciousness consists of a continuous flows of thoughts (or stream of consciousness) and one should not only look at the static points (structure) in that flow. Hence they are more interested in how people adapt their behaviour to the real world. The practical orientation of functionalism fostered the development of applied psychology and behaviourism.
In contradiction to the structuralist movement, William James promoted a school of thought known as functionalism, the belief that the real task of psychology is to investigate the function, or purpose, of consciousness rather than its structure. James was highly influenced by Darwin’s evolutionary theory that all characteristics of a species must serve some adaptive purpose. Functionalism enjoyed widespread appeal in the United States. Its three main leaders were James Rowland Angell, a student of James; John Dewey, who was also one of the foremost American philosophers and educators; and Harvey A. Carr, a psychologist at the University of Chicago.
In their efforts to understand human behavioral processes, the functional psychologists developed the technique of longitudinal research, which consists of interviewing, testing, and observing one person over a long period of time. Such a system permits the psychologist to observe and record the person’s development and how he or she reacts to different circumstances
Shaped by Wundt's ideas, structuralism was based on the notion that the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements and investigate how these elements are related (c.f. physics), hence the study of sensations, feelings and images as components of conscious experience. Structuralists depend on the method of introspection.
Architected by William James (1842-1910), functionalists believed that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure. Such notion was derived from Darwin's theories of natural selection, which suggest that all characteristics of a species (e.g. consciousness of human) should serve some purpose as otherwise they wont be selected over time by nature.
Functionalists argue that consciousness consists of a continuous flows of thoughts (or stream of consciousness) and one should not only look at the static points (structure) in that flow. Hence they are more interested in how people adapt their behaviour to the real world. The practical orientation of functionalism fostered the development of applied psychology and behaviourism.
Labels:
General Psychology
Type of Mental Disosrder or Illness | Symptoms and Treatment
There are many different conditions that are recognized as mental illnesses.
Anxiety disorders: People with anxiety disorders respond to certain objects or situations with fear and dread, as well as with physical signs of anxiety or nervousness, such as a rapid heartbeat and sweating.
An anxiety disorder is diagnosed if the person's response is not appropriate for the situation, if the person cannot control the response, or if the anxiety interferes with normal functioning. Anxiety disorders include generalized anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobias.
Mood disorders: These disorders, also called affective disorders, involve persistent feelings of sadness or periods of feeling overly happy, or fluctuations from extreme happiness to extreme sadness. The most common mood disorders are depression, mania, and bipolar disorder.
Psychotic disorders: Psychotic disorders involve distorted awareness and thinking. Two of the most common symptoms of psychotic disorders are hallucinations -- the experience of images or sounds that are not real, such as hearing voices -- and delusions -- false beliefs that the ill person accepts as true, despite evidence to the contrary. Schizophrenia is an example of a psychotic disorder.
Eating disorders: Eating disorders involve extreme emotions, attitudes, and behaviors involving weight and food. Anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder are the most common eating disorders.
Impulse control and addiction disorders: People with impulse control disorders are unable to resist urges, or impulses, to perform acts that could be harmful to themselves or others. Pyromania (starting fires), kleptomania (stealing), and compulsive gambling are examples of impulse control disorders. Alcohol and drugs are common objects of addictions. Often, people with these disorders become so involved with the objects of their addiction that they begin to ignore responsibilities and relationships.
Personality disorders: People with personality disorders have extreme and inflexible personality traits that are distressing to the person and/or cause problems in work, school, or social relationships. In addition, the person's patterns of thinking and behavior significantly differ from the expectations of society and are so rigid that they interfere with the person's normal functioning. Examples include antisocial personality disorder, obsessive-compulsive personality disorder, and paranoid personality disorder
Adjustment disorder: Adjustment disorder occurs when a person develops emotional or behavioral symptoms in response to a stressful event or situation. The stressors may include natural disasters, such as an earthquake or tornado; events or crises, such as a car accident or the diagnosis of a major illness; or interpersonal problems, such as a divorce, death of a loved one, loss of a job, or a problem with substance abuse. Adjustment disorder usually begins within three months of the event or situation and ends within six months after the stressor stops or is eliminated.
Dissociative disorders: People with these disorders suffer severe disturbances or changes in memory, consciousness, identity, and general awareness of themselves and their surroundings. These disorders usually are associated with overwhelming stress, which may be the result of traumatic events, accidents, or disasters that may be experienced or witnessed by the individual. Dissociative identity disorder, formerly called multiple personality disorder, or "split personality", and depersonalization disorder are examples of dissociative disorders.
Factitious disorders: Factitious disorders are conditions in which physical and/or emotional symptoms are created in order to place the individual in the role of a patient or a person in need of help.
Sexual and gender disorders: These include disorders that affect sexual desire, performance, and behavior. Sexual dysfunction, gender identity disorder, and the paraphilias are examples of sexual and gender disorders.
Somatoform disorders: A person with a somatoform disorder, formerly known as psychosomatic disorder, experiences physical symptoms of an illness even though a doctor can find no medical cause for the symptoms.
Tic disorders: People with tic disorders make sounds or display body movements that are repeated, quick, sudden, and/or uncontrollable.
(Sounds that are made involuntarily are called vocal tics.) Tourette's syndrome is an example of a tic disorder.
Anxiety disorders: People with anxiety disorders respond to certain objects or situations with fear and dread, as well as with physical signs of anxiety or nervousness, such as a rapid heartbeat and sweating.
An anxiety disorder is diagnosed if the person's response is not appropriate for the situation, if the person cannot control the response, or if the anxiety interferes with normal functioning. Anxiety disorders include generalized anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobias.
Mood disorders: These disorders, also called affective disorders, involve persistent feelings of sadness or periods of feeling overly happy, or fluctuations from extreme happiness to extreme sadness. The most common mood disorders are depression, mania, and bipolar disorder.
Psychotic disorders: Psychotic disorders involve distorted awareness and thinking. Two of the most common symptoms of psychotic disorders are hallucinations -- the experience of images or sounds that are not real, such as hearing voices -- and delusions -- false beliefs that the ill person accepts as true, despite evidence to the contrary. Schizophrenia is an example of a psychotic disorder.
Eating disorders: Eating disorders involve extreme emotions, attitudes, and behaviors involving weight and food. Anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder are the most common eating disorders.
Impulse control and addiction disorders: People with impulse control disorders are unable to resist urges, or impulses, to perform acts that could be harmful to themselves or others. Pyromania (starting fires), kleptomania (stealing), and compulsive gambling are examples of impulse control disorders. Alcohol and drugs are common objects of addictions. Often, people with these disorders become so involved with the objects of their addiction that they begin to ignore responsibilities and relationships.
Personality disorders: People with personality disorders have extreme and inflexible personality traits that are distressing to the person and/or cause problems in work, school, or social relationships. In addition, the person's patterns of thinking and behavior significantly differ from the expectations of society and are so rigid that they interfere with the person's normal functioning. Examples include antisocial personality disorder, obsessive-compulsive personality disorder, and paranoid personality disorder
Adjustment disorder: Adjustment disorder occurs when a person develops emotional or behavioral symptoms in response to a stressful event or situation. The stressors may include natural disasters, such as an earthquake or tornado; events or crises, such as a car accident or the diagnosis of a major illness; or interpersonal problems, such as a divorce, death of a loved one, loss of a job, or a problem with substance abuse. Adjustment disorder usually begins within three months of the event or situation and ends within six months after the stressor stops or is eliminated.
Dissociative disorders: People with these disorders suffer severe disturbances or changes in memory, consciousness, identity, and general awareness of themselves and their surroundings. These disorders usually are associated with overwhelming stress, which may be the result of traumatic events, accidents, or disasters that may be experienced or witnessed by the individual. Dissociative identity disorder, formerly called multiple personality disorder, or "split personality", and depersonalization disorder are examples of dissociative disorders.
Factitious disorders: Factitious disorders are conditions in which physical and/or emotional symptoms are created in order to place the individual in the role of a patient or a person in need of help.
Sexual and gender disorders: These include disorders that affect sexual desire, performance, and behavior. Sexual dysfunction, gender identity disorder, and the paraphilias are examples of sexual and gender disorders.
Somatoform disorders: A person with a somatoform disorder, formerly known as psychosomatic disorder, experiences physical symptoms of an illness even though a doctor can find no medical cause for the symptoms.
Tic disorders: People with tic disorders make sounds or display body movements that are repeated, quick, sudden, and/or uncontrollable.
(Sounds that are made involuntarily are called vocal tics.) Tourette's syndrome is an example of a tic disorder.
Definition of Dissociation and Multiple Personality Disorders
Dissociation is a word that is used to describe the disconnection or lack of connection between things usually associated with each other. Dissociated experiences are not integrated into the usual sense of self, resulting in discontinuities in conscious awareness (Anderson & Alexander, 1996; Frey, 2001;
International Society for the Study of Dissociation, 2002; Maldonado, Butler, & Spiegel, 2002; Pascuzzi & Weber, 1997; Rauschenberger & Lynn, 1995; Simeon et al., 2001; Spiegel & Cardeña, 1991; Steinberg et al., 1990, 1993).
In severe forms of dissociation, disconnection occurs in the usually integrated functions of consciousness, memory, identity, or perception. For example, someone may think about an event that was tremendously upsetting yet have no feelings about it. Clinically, this is termed emotional numbing, one of the hallmarks of post-traumatic stress disorder. Dissociation is a psychological process commonly found in persons seeking mental health treatment (Maldonado et al., 2002).
Dissociation may affect a person subjectively in the form of “made” thoughts, feelings, and actions. These are thoughts or emotions seemingly coming out of nowhere, or finding oneself carrying out an action as if it were controlled by a force other than oneself (Dell, 2001).
Typically, a person feels “taken over” by an emotion that does not seem to makes sense at the time. Feeling suddenly, unbearably sad, without an apparent reason, and then having the sadness leave in much the same manner as it came, is an example. Or someone may find himself or herself doing something that they would not normally do but unable to stop themselves, almost as if they are being compelled to do it. This is sometimes described as the experience of being a “passenger” in one’s body, rather than the driver
Multiple personality disorder (MPD) is a psychiatric disorder characterized by having at least one "alter" personality that controls behavior. The "alters" are said to occur spontaneously and involuntarily, and function more or less independently of each other. The unity of consciousness, by which we identify our selves, is said to be absent in MPD. Many labeled with mpd seek mental health treatment programs to help manage the disorder. Another symptom of MPD is significant amnesia which can't be explained by ordinary forgetfulness. In 1994, the American Psychiatric Association's DSM-IV replaced the designation of MPD with DID: dissociative identity disorder. The label may have changed, but the list of symptoms remained essentially the same.
Memory and other aspects of consciousness are said to be divided up among "alters" in the MPD. The number of "alters" identified by various therapists ranges from several to tens to hundreds. There are even some reports of several thousand identities dwelling in one person. There does not seem to be any consensus among therapists as to what an "alter" is. Yet, there is general agreement that the cause of MPD is repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse. The evidence for this claim has been challenged, however, and there are very few reported cases of MPD afflicting children
International Society for the Study of Dissociation, 2002; Maldonado, Butler, & Spiegel, 2002; Pascuzzi & Weber, 1997; Rauschenberger & Lynn, 1995; Simeon et al., 2001; Spiegel & Cardeña, 1991; Steinberg et al., 1990, 1993).
In severe forms of dissociation, disconnection occurs in the usually integrated functions of consciousness, memory, identity, or perception. For example, someone may think about an event that was tremendously upsetting yet have no feelings about it. Clinically, this is termed emotional numbing, one of the hallmarks of post-traumatic stress disorder. Dissociation is a psychological process commonly found in persons seeking mental health treatment (Maldonado et al., 2002).
Dissociation may affect a person subjectively in the form of “made” thoughts, feelings, and actions. These are thoughts or emotions seemingly coming out of nowhere, or finding oneself carrying out an action as if it were controlled by a force other than oneself (Dell, 2001).
Typically, a person feels “taken over” by an emotion that does not seem to makes sense at the time. Feeling suddenly, unbearably sad, without an apparent reason, and then having the sadness leave in much the same manner as it came, is an example. Or someone may find himself or herself doing something that they would not normally do but unable to stop themselves, almost as if they are being compelled to do it. This is sometimes described as the experience of being a “passenger” in one’s body, rather than the driver
Multiple personality disorder (MPD) is a psychiatric disorder characterized by having at least one "alter" personality that controls behavior. The "alters" are said to occur spontaneously and involuntarily, and function more or less independently of each other. The unity of consciousness, by which we identify our selves, is said to be absent in MPD. Many labeled with mpd seek mental health treatment programs to help manage the disorder. Another symptom of MPD is significant amnesia which can't be explained by ordinary forgetfulness. In 1994, the American Psychiatric Association's DSM-IV replaced the designation of MPD with DID: dissociative identity disorder. The label may have changed, but the list of symptoms remained essentially the same.
Memory and other aspects of consciousness are said to be divided up among "alters" in the MPD. The number of "alters" identified by various therapists ranges from several to tens to hundreds. There are even some reports of several thousand identities dwelling in one person. There does not seem to be any consensus among therapists as to what an "alter" is. Yet, there is general agreement that the cause of MPD is repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse. The evidence for this claim has been challenged, however, and there are very few reported cases of MPD afflicting children
Labels:
Common Mental Disorder
Definition of Insomia | Symptoms and Treatment
Insomnia: The perception or complaint of inadequate or poor-quality sleep because of one or more of the following: difficulty falling asleep; waking up frequently during the night with difficulty returning to sleep; waking up too early in the morning; or unrefreshing sleep. Insomnia is not defined by the number of hours of sleep a person gets or how long it takes to fall asleep. Individuals vary normally in their need for, and their satisfaction with, sleep. Insomnia may cause problems during the day, such as tiredness, a lack of energy, difficulty concentrating, and irritability.
Types of Insomnia: Insomnia can be classified as transient (short term), intermittent (on and off), and chronic (constant). Insomnia lasting from a single night to a few weeks is referred to as transient. If episodes of transient insomnia occur from time to time, the insomnia is said to be intermittent. Insomnia is considered to be chronic if it occurs on most nights and lasts a month or more.
Causes of Insomnia: Certain conditions seem to make individuals more likely to experience insomnia. Examples of these conditions include: advanced age (insomnia occurs more frequently in those over age 60); female gender; and a history of depression. If other conditions (such as stress, anxiety, a medical problem, or the use of certain medications) occur along with the above conditions, insomnia is more likely.
There are many causes of insomnia. Transient and intermittent insomnia generally occur in people who are temporarily experiencing one or more of the following: stress, environmental noise, extreme temperatures, a change in the surrounding environment, sleep/wake schedule problems such as those due to jet lag, or medication side effects.
Chronic insomnia is more complex and often results from a combination of factors, including underlying physical or mental disorders. One of the most common causes of chronic insomnia is depression. Other underlying causes include arthritis, kidney disease, heart failure, asthma, sleep apnea, narcolepsy, restless leg syndrome, Parkinson disease, and hyperthyroidism. However, chronic insomnia may also be due to behavioral factors, including the misuse of caffeine, alcohol, or other substances; disrupted sleep/wake cycles as may occur with shift work or other nighttime activity schedules; and chronic stress.
Certain Behaviors: Behaviors that perpetuate insomnia in some people include: expecting to have difficulty sleeping and worrying about it, ingesting excessive amounts of caffeine, drinking alcohol or smoking cigarettes before bedtime, excessive napping in the afternoon or evening, and irregular or continually disrupted sleep/wake schedules. These behaviors may prolong existing insomnia, and they can also be responsible for causing the sleeping problem in the first place. Stopping these behaviors may eliminate the insomnia altogether.
Who Has Insomnia? Insomnia is found in males and females of all age groups, although it seems to be more common in females (especially after menopause) and in the elderly. The ability to sleep, rather than the need for sleep, appears to decrease with advancing age.
Treatment with Medication
Alcohol. Commonly self-prescribed as a sleep aid, alcohol is of limited benefit. A very small amount of alcohol can be relaxing and produce sleepiness early in the evening, but later in the evening there may be a rebound effect of difficulty sleeping. In addition, chronic alcohol use can produce tolerance and dependence and cause many other medical problems.
Antihistamines. Usually sold as remedies for colds, over-the-counter antihistamines (e.g., diphenhydramine) can produce sedation and are often used as sleeping pills. These agents can be effective for short-term use, but they have not been shown to be consistently effective. Since they are long acting medications, grogginess can persist into the daytime.
Benzodiazepines. These drugs, relatives of diazepam (Valium), improve sleep by decreasing the amount of time needed to fall asleep and the number of awakenings during sleep. Their use has declined considerably with the introduction of non-benzodiazepine drugs (see below). The side effects of using these drugs are poor coordination, reduced reaction time, and impaired memory. These "hangover effects" occur when the blood level is at its peak and will vary depending on how long the drug remains in the body. These drugs may also worsen sleep apnea.
Non-benzodiazepines - These drugs have been introduced over the past 10-12 years and have become the primary treatment for short-term insomnia. They work in the same area of the brain as the BZDs, but tend to be more specific for inducing sleep. They also do not cause significant hangover effects and do not seem to worsen sleep apnea. Examples of this class of drugs are Ambien, Sonata, and Lunesta.
Ramelteon (Rozerem) - A newly approved medication that acts at the melatonin receptor to help induce sleep (see below).
Melatonin - This herbal agent seems to be effective in helping transient and short-term insomnia. However, as an herbal supplement which is not regulated by the Food and Drug Administartion, there is a great discrepancy in the quality of the products and no firm recommendations and can be given for its use.
Antidepressants - These agents are often prescribed as sleep aids in those with co-existing psychiatric problems. The most commonly used sedating antidepressant is trazodone.
Herbal medications such as valerian, chamomile, and kava-kava, are often used to help sleep, but long-term effectiveness and safety data are not available.
Types of Insomnia: Insomnia can be classified as transient (short term), intermittent (on and off), and chronic (constant). Insomnia lasting from a single night to a few weeks is referred to as transient. If episodes of transient insomnia occur from time to time, the insomnia is said to be intermittent. Insomnia is considered to be chronic if it occurs on most nights and lasts a month or more.
Causes of Insomnia: Certain conditions seem to make individuals more likely to experience insomnia. Examples of these conditions include: advanced age (insomnia occurs more frequently in those over age 60); female gender; and a history of depression. If other conditions (such as stress, anxiety, a medical problem, or the use of certain medications) occur along with the above conditions, insomnia is more likely.
There are many causes of insomnia. Transient and intermittent insomnia generally occur in people who are temporarily experiencing one or more of the following: stress, environmental noise, extreme temperatures, a change in the surrounding environment, sleep/wake schedule problems such as those due to jet lag, or medication side effects.
Chronic insomnia is more complex and often results from a combination of factors, including underlying physical or mental disorders. One of the most common causes of chronic insomnia is depression. Other underlying causes include arthritis, kidney disease, heart failure, asthma, sleep apnea, narcolepsy, restless leg syndrome, Parkinson disease, and hyperthyroidism. However, chronic insomnia may also be due to behavioral factors, including the misuse of caffeine, alcohol, or other substances; disrupted sleep/wake cycles as may occur with shift work or other nighttime activity schedules; and chronic stress.
Certain Behaviors: Behaviors that perpetuate insomnia in some people include: expecting to have difficulty sleeping and worrying about it, ingesting excessive amounts of caffeine, drinking alcohol or smoking cigarettes before bedtime, excessive napping in the afternoon or evening, and irregular or continually disrupted sleep/wake schedules. These behaviors may prolong existing insomnia, and they can also be responsible for causing the sleeping problem in the first place. Stopping these behaviors may eliminate the insomnia altogether.
Who Has Insomnia? Insomnia is found in males and females of all age groups, although it seems to be more common in females (especially after menopause) and in the elderly. The ability to sleep, rather than the need for sleep, appears to decrease with advancing age.
Treatment with Medication
Alcohol. Commonly self-prescribed as a sleep aid, alcohol is of limited benefit. A very small amount of alcohol can be relaxing and produce sleepiness early in the evening, but later in the evening there may be a rebound effect of difficulty sleeping. In addition, chronic alcohol use can produce tolerance and dependence and cause many other medical problems.
Antihistamines. Usually sold as remedies for colds, over-the-counter antihistamines (e.g., diphenhydramine) can produce sedation and are often used as sleeping pills. These agents can be effective for short-term use, but they have not been shown to be consistently effective. Since they are long acting medications, grogginess can persist into the daytime.
Benzodiazepines. These drugs, relatives of diazepam (Valium), improve sleep by decreasing the amount of time needed to fall asleep and the number of awakenings during sleep. Their use has declined considerably with the introduction of non-benzodiazepine drugs (see below). The side effects of using these drugs are poor coordination, reduced reaction time, and impaired memory. These "hangover effects" occur when the blood level is at its peak and will vary depending on how long the drug remains in the body. These drugs may also worsen sleep apnea.
Non-benzodiazepines - These drugs have been introduced over the past 10-12 years and have become the primary treatment for short-term insomnia. They work in the same area of the brain as the BZDs, but tend to be more specific for inducing sleep. They also do not cause significant hangover effects and do not seem to worsen sleep apnea. Examples of this class of drugs are Ambien, Sonata, and Lunesta.
Ramelteon (Rozerem) - A newly approved medication that acts at the melatonin receptor to help induce sleep (see below).
Melatonin - This herbal agent seems to be effective in helping transient and short-term insomnia. However, as an herbal supplement which is not regulated by the Food and Drug Administartion, there is a great discrepancy in the quality of the products and no firm recommendations and can be given for its use.
Antidepressants - These agents are often prescribed as sleep aids in those with co-existing psychiatric problems. The most commonly used sedating antidepressant is trazodone.
Herbal medications such as valerian, chamomile, and kava-kava, are often used to help sleep, but long-term effectiveness and safety data are not available.
Labels:
Common Mental Disorder
Definition of Autism | Symptoms and Treatment
DEFINITION OF AUTISM
Autism is defined by the Autism Society Of America (ASA) as: "Autism is a complex developmental disability that typically appears during the first three years of life and is the result of a neurological disorder that affects the normal functioning of the brain, impacting development in the areas of social interaction and communication skills. Both children and adults with autism typically show difficulties in verbal and non-verbal communication, social interactions, and leisure or play activities.
Autism is one of five disorders that falls under the umbrella of Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD), a category of neurological disorders characterized by “severe and pervasive impairment in several areas of development
CHARACTERISTICS OF AUTISM
Most signs or characteristics of Autism are evident in the areas of speech or communication (verbal and non-verbal). Many of the signs or symptoms of Autism begin presenting themselves between 2 and 6 years of age.
Symptoms:
Social skills
Fails to respond to his or her name
Has poor eye contact
Appears not to hear you at times
Resists cuddling and holding
Appears unaware of others' feelings
Seems to prefer playing alone — retreats into his or her "own world"
Language
Starts talking later than age 2, and has other developmental delays by 30 months
Loses previously acquired ability to say words or sentences
Doesn't make eye contact when making requests
Speaks with an abnormal tone or rhythm — may use a singsong voice or robot-like speech
Can't start a conversation or keep one going
May repeat words or phrases verbatim, but doesn't understand how to use them
Behavior
Performs repetitive movements, such as rocking, spinning or hand-flapping
Develops specific routines or rituals
Becomes disturbed at the slightest change in routines or rituals
Moves constantly
May be fascinated by parts of an object, such as the spinning wheels of a toy car
May be unusually sensitive to light, sound and touch and yet oblivious to pain
Autism is defined by the Autism Society Of America (ASA) as: "Autism is a complex developmental disability that typically appears during the first three years of life and is the result of a neurological disorder that affects the normal functioning of the brain, impacting development in the areas of social interaction and communication skills. Both children and adults with autism typically show difficulties in verbal and non-verbal communication, social interactions, and leisure or play activities.
Autism is one of five disorders that falls under the umbrella of Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD), a category of neurological disorders characterized by “severe and pervasive impairment in several areas of development
CHARACTERISTICS OF AUTISM
Most signs or characteristics of Autism are evident in the areas of speech or communication (verbal and non-verbal). Many of the signs or symptoms of Autism begin presenting themselves between 2 and 6 years of age.
Symptoms:
Social skills
Fails to respond to his or her name
Has poor eye contact
Appears not to hear you at times
Resists cuddling and holding
Appears unaware of others' feelings
Seems to prefer playing alone — retreats into his or her "own world"
Language
Starts talking later than age 2, and has other developmental delays by 30 months
Loses previously acquired ability to say words or sentences
Doesn't make eye contact when making requests
Speaks with an abnormal tone or rhythm — may use a singsong voice or robot-like speech
Can't start a conversation or keep one going
May repeat words or phrases verbatim, but doesn't understand how to use them
Behavior
Performs repetitive movements, such as rocking, spinning or hand-flapping
Develops specific routines or rituals
Becomes disturbed at the slightest change in routines or rituals
Moves constantly
May be fascinated by parts of an object, such as the spinning wheels of a toy car
May be unusually sensitive to light, sound and touch and yet oblivious to pain
Labels:
Common Mental Disorder
Definition of Schizophrenia and Schizoaffective Disorders
Schizophrenia is a brain disease that interferes with normal brain functioning. It causes affected people to exhibit odd and often highly irrational or disorganized behavior. Because the brain is the organ in the body where thinking, feeling and understanding of the world takes place (where consciousness exists), a brain disease like schizophrenia alters thinking, feeling, understanding and consciousness itself in affected persons, changing their lives for the worse.
Schizophrenia symptoms include difficulty thinking coherently, interacting with others normally, carrying out responsibilities and expressing emotions appropriately. Even simple everyday tasks like personal hygiene can become unmanageable and neglected. The disease can thus impact every aspect of affected people's work, family, and social life.
Though not affected directly, family members also frequently become distressed and overwhelmed by the difficulties involved in providing care and in coming to terms with the transformation of their loved one into a patient with a serious chronic illness.
Treatment
Often a combination of drugs, psychotherapy, and community support
Because schizoaffective disorder often leads to long-term disability, comprehensive treatment (including drugs, psychotherapy, and community support) is often required.
For treatment of the manic type, antipsychotics combined with lithium, carbamazepine, or valproate may be more effective than antipsychotics alone.
For treatment of the depressive type, antipsychotics are commonly combined with antidepressants. Antidepressants should usually be introduced once positive psychotic symptoms are stabilized. SSRIs are preferred because of their safety profile. Second-generation antipsychotics may be more effective than conventional antipsychotics in alleviating depression associated with psychosis.
Patients with schizophrenia often do not respond to treatment or only partially improve and remain functionally impaired. While medication has been found to be effective for the treatment of positive symptoms of the disease, treatment of the negative symptoms of depression (including lack of energy, motivation, and emotional range) has historically not been very successful. In nearly 25 percent of those patients, the condition is so refractory to neuroleptic pharmacotherapy that they require custodial care.
Prevention of psychotic relapse in schizophrenic patients is a primary long-term clinical goal. The duration of psychotic episodes predicts the risk of relapse. Patients who have been psychotic for more than a year are rehospitalized for recurrence more often than those ill for less than a year. Neuroleptic drug therapy greatly shortens episodes of psychosis.
Antipsychotic drugs, also referred to as neuroleptics, are essential to the management of schizophrenia. With the exception of clozapine (Clozaril), all antipsychotic medications are equally effective overall. Older medications known as typical antipsychotics are known to generally have more severe side effects than newer atypical antipsychotics, specifically extrapyramidal symptoms like tremors, restlessness, and muscle spasms.
Atypical antipsychotic medications include risperidone (Risperdal), olanzapine (Zyprexa), ziprasidone (Geodon), quetiapine (Seroquel), and aripiprazole (Abilify). Typical antipsychotic mediations include haloperidol, chlorpromazine, thioridazine (Mellaril), trifluoperazine (Stelazine), and thiothixene (Navane).
Clozapine (Clozaril) has been shown to be more effective than any other treatment for schizophrenia, especially in refractory cases. It is effective for both positive and negative symptoms of the disease and has a low incidence of extrapyramidal side effects. However because of the risk of agranulocytosis, a disorder of suppressed white blood cells, it is rarely used as a first line agent.
As compliance with daily medication is an obstacle to care in schizophrenia, there are several long acting forms of antipsychotic medication that only have to be administered every week or every few weeks. Some of these long term medications include haloperidol deconate (Haldol Decanoate), fluphenazine deconate (Prolixin Decanoate), and Risperdal Consta.
Other drugs used include lithium and the benzodiazepines. Lithium alone is inferior to neuroleptic agents in inducing remission of psychosis
Schizophrenia symptoms include difficulty thinking coherently, interacting with others normally, carrying out responsibilities and expressing emotions appropriately. Even simple everyday tasks like personal hygiene can become unmanageable and neglected. The disease can thus impact every aspect of affected people's work, family, and social life.
Though not affected directly, family members also frequently become distressed and overwhelmed by the difficulties involved in providing care and in coming to terms with the transformation of their loved one into a patient with a serious chronic illness.
Treatment
Often a combination of drugs, psychotherapy, and community support
Because schizoaffective disorder often leads to long-term disability, comprehensive treatment (including drugs, psychotherapy, and community support) is often required.
For treatment of the manic type, antipsychotics combined with lithium, carbamazepine, or valproate may be more effective than antipsychotics alone.
For treatment of the depressive type, antipsychotics are commonly combined with antidepressants. Antidepressants should usually be introduced once positive psychotic symptoms are stabilized. SSRIs are preferred because of their safety profile. Second-generation antipsychotics may be more effective than conventional antipsychotics in alleviating depression associated with psychosis.
Patients with schizophrenia often do not respond to treatment or only partially improve and remain functionally impaired. While medication has been found to be effective for the treatment of positive symptoms of the disease, treatment of the negative symptoms of depression (including lack of energy, motivation, and emotional range) has historically not been very successful. In nearly 25 percent of those patients, the condition is so refractory to neuroleptic pharmacotherapy that they require custodial care.
Prevention of psychotic relapse in schizophrenic patients is a primary long-term clinical goal. The duration of psychotic episodes predicts the risk of relapse. Patients who have been psychotic for more than a year are rehospitalized for recurrence more often than those ill for less than a year. Neuroleptic drug therapy greatly shortens episodes of psychosis.
Antipsychotic drugs, also referred to as neuroleptics, are essential to the management of schizophrenia. With the exception of clozapine (Clozaril), all antipsychotic medications are equally effective overall. Older medications known as typical antipsychotics are known to generally have more severe side effects than newer atypical antipsychotics, specifically extrapyramidal symptoms like tremors, restlessness, and muscle spasms.
Atypical antipsychotic medications include risperidone (Risperdal), olanzapine (Zyprexa), ziprasidone (Geodon), quetiapine (Seroquel), and aripiprazole (Abilify). Typical antipsychotic mediations include haloperidol, chlorpromazine, thioridazine (Mellaril), trifluoperazine (Stelazine), and thiothixene (Navane).
Clozapine (Clozaril) has been shown to be more effective than any other treatment for schizophrenia, especially in refractory cases. It is effective for both positive and negative symptoms of the disease and has a low incidence of extrapyramidal side effects. However because of the risk of agranulocytosis, a disorder of suppressed white blood cells, it is rarely used as a first line agent.
As compliance with daily medication is an obstacle to care in schizophrenia, there are several long acting forms of antipsychotic medication that only have to be administered every week or every few weeks. Some of these long term medications include haloperidol deconate (Haldol Decanoate), fluphenazine deconate (Prolixin Decanoate), and Risperdal Consta.
Other drugs used include lithium and the benzodiazepines. Lithium alone is inferior to neuroleptic agents in inducing remission of psychosis
Definition of Dementia | Symtoms and Treatment
Dementia is not a specific disorder or disease. It is a syndrome (group of symptoms) associated with a progressive loss of memory and other intellectual functions that is serious enough to interfere with performing the tasks of daily life. Dementia can occur to anyone at any age from an injury or from oxygen deprivation, although it is most commonly associated with aging. It is the leading cause of institutionalization of older adult
Dementia is a condition in which there is a gradual loss of brain function; it is a decline in cognitive/intellectual functioning The main symptoms are usually loss of memory, confusion, problems with speech and understanding, changes in personality and behavior and an increased reliance on others for the activities of daily living (Royal College of Psychiatrists).
It is not a disease in itself but rather a group of symptoms which may result from age, brain injury, disease, vitamin or hormone imbalance, or drugs or alcohol. A person with dementia may also exhibit changes in mood, personality or behavior. The loss of mental functions must be severe enough to interfere with daily living. Confusion and disorientation may be present.
Treatment
Medication is the most effective treatment for bipolar disorder. A combination of mood stabilizing agents with antidepressants, antipsychotics, and anticonvulsants may be used to regulate manic and depressive episodes.
Mood stabilizing agents are the most commonly prescribed drugs to treat bipolar disorder. Their function is to regulate the manic highs and lows of bipolar disorder. The following drugs are commonly used:
Lithium (Cibalith-S, Eskalith, Lithane, Lithobid, Lithonate, Lithotabs) is one of the oldest and most frequently prescribed drugs available for the treatment of bipolar mania and depression. Because the drug takes four to ten days to reach a therapeutic level in the bloodstream, it sometimes is prescribed in conjunction with neuroleptics and/or benzodiazepines to provide more immediate relief of a manic episode.
Lithium also has been shown to be effective in regulating bipolar depression, but is not recommended for mixed mania. Lithium may not be an effective long-term treatment option for rapid cyclers, who typically develop a tolerance for it or may not respond to it. Possible side effects of the drug include weight gain, thirst, nausea, and hand tremors. Prolonged lithium use also may cause hyperthyroidism (a disorder in which the thyroid is overactive, which may cause heart palpitations, nervousness, the presence of goiter, sweating, and a wide array of other symptoms.)
Carbamazepine (Tegretol, Atretol) is an anticonvulsant drug often prescribed in conjunction with other mood stabilizing agents. The drug may be used to treat bipolar patients who have not responded well to lithium therapy. Blurred vision and abnormal eye movement are two possible side effects of carbamazepine therapy.
Valproate (divalproex sodium, or Depakote; valproic acid, or Depakene) is one of the few drugs available that has been proven effective in treating rapid cycling bipolar and mixed states patients. Valproate is prescribed alone or in combination with carbamazepine and/or lithium. Stomach cramps, indigestion, diarrhea, hair loss, appetite loss, nausea, and unusual weight loss or gain are some of the common side effects of valproate.
Dementia is a condition in which there is a gradual loss of brain function; it is a decline in cognitive/intellectual functioning The main symptoms are usually loss of memory, confusion, problems with speech and understanding, changes in personality and behavior and an increased reliance on others for the activities of daily living (Royal College of Psychiatrists).
It is not a disease in itself but rather a group of symptoms which may result from age, brain injury, disease, vitamin or hormone imbalance, or drugs or alcohol. A person with dementia may also exhibit changes in mood, personality or behavior. The loss of mental functions must be severe enough to interfere with daily living. Confusion and disorientation may be present.
Treatment
Medication is the most effective treatment for bipolar disorder. A combination of mood stabilizing agents with antidepressants, antipsychotics, and anticonvulsants may be used to regulate manic and depressive episodes.
Mood stabilizing agents are the most commonly prescribed drugs to treat bipolar disorder. Their function is to regulate the manic highs and lows of bipolar disorder. The following drugs are commonly used:
Lithium (Cibalith-S, Eskalith, Lithane, Lithobid, Lithonate, Lithotabs) is one of the oldest and most frequently prescribed drugs available for the treatment of bipolar mania and depression. Because the drug takes four to ten days to reach a therapeutic level in the bloodstream, it sometimes is prescribed in conjunction with neuroleptics and/or benzodiazepines to provide more immediate relief of a manic episode.
Lithium also has been shown to be effective in regulating bipolar depression, but is not recommended for mixed mania. Lithium may not be an effective long-term treatment option for rapid cyclers, who typically develop a tolerance for it or may not respond to it. Possible side effects of the drug include weight gain, thirst, nausea, and hand tremors. Prolonged lithium use also may cause hyperthyroidism (a disorder in which the thyroid is overactive, which may cause heart palpitations, nervousness, the presence of goiter, sweating, and a wide array of other symptoms.)
Carbamazepine (Tegretol, Atretol) is an anticonvulsant drug often prescribed in conjunction with other mood stabilizing agents. The drug may be used to treat bipolar patients who have not responded well to lithium therapy. Blurred vision and abnormal eye movement are two possible side effects of carbamazepine therapy.
Valproate (divalproex sodium, or Depakote; valproic acid, or Depakene) is one of the few drugs available that has been proven effective in treating rapid cycling bipolar and mixed states patients. Valproate is prescribed alone or in combination with carbamazepine and/or lithium. Stomach cramps, indigestion, diarrhea, hair loss, appetite loss, nausea, and unusual weight loss or gain are some of the common side effects of valproate.
Labels:
Common Mental Disorder,
Dementia
Definition of Bipolar Disorder | Symptoms and Treatment
Bipolar Disorder (also known as manic depression) causes serious shifts in mood, energy, thinking, and behavior–from the highs of mania on one extreme, to the lows of depression on the other. More than just a fleeting good or bad mood, the cycles of bipolar disorder last for days, weeks, or months. And unlike ordinary mood swings, the mood changes of bipolar disorder are so intense that they interfere with your ability to function.
A mood disorder sometimes called manic-depressive illness or manic-depression that characteristically involves cycles ofdepression and elation or mania. Sometimes the mood switches from high to low and back again are dramatic and rapid, but more often they are gradual and slow, and intervals of normal mood may occur between the high (manic) and low (depressive) phases of the condition. The symptoms of both the depressive and manic cycles may be severe and often lead to impaired functioning.
Both phases of the disease are deleterious. Mania affects thinking, judgment, and social behavior in ways that may cause serious problems and embarrassment. For example, unwise business or financial decisions may be made when an individual is in a manic phase. Depression can also affect thinking, judgment, and social behavior in ways that may cause grave problems. For example, it elevates the risk of suicide. About 5.7 million American adults, or about 2.6 percent of the population aged 18 and older, have bipolar disorder.
Although bipolar disorder often worsens over time if untreated, most people with bipolar disorder can achieve stabilization of their mood swings and reduction of symptoms with proper treatment. Treatment usually consists of medications known as "mood stabilizers."
During a manic episode, a person might impulsively quit a job, charge up huge amounts on credit cards, or feel rested after sleeping two hours. During a depressive episode, the same person might be too tired to get out of bed and full of self-loathing and hopelessness over being unemployed and in debt.
The causes of bipolar disorder aren’t completely understood, but it often runs in families. The first manic or depressive episode of bipolar disorder usually occurs in the teenage years or early adulthood. The symptoms can be subtle and confusing, so many people with bipolar disorder are overlooked or misdiagnosed–resulting in unnecessary suffering. But with proper treatment and support, you can lead a rich and fulfilling life.
Causes and symptoms
Although the source of bipolar disorder has not been clearly identified, a number of genetic and environmental factors appear to be involved in triggering episodes. Bipolar disorder has an inherited component; children who have at least one parent with bipolar disorder are more likely to develop the disorder. They are also more likely to be diagnosed with other psychiatric disorders such as attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Several studies have uncovered possible genetic connections to the predisposition for bipolar disorder. A large study done in Sweden reported in 2009 that schizophrenia and bipolar disorder appeared to share similar genetic causes. Brain imaging studies suggest that there are physical changes in the brains of people with bipolar disorder. It is hypothesized that dopamine and other neurotransmitters involved in mood may be involved. The possible role of hormonal imbalances in bipolar disorder is another area of investigation. Investigators are also researching what, if any, environmental factors may trigger the disorder.
People with bipolar disorder tend to have other psychiatric disorders. Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and ADHD are among the most common. Over one-half of patients diagnosed with bipolar disorder have a history of substance abuse. A high rate of association exists between cocaine abuse and bipolar disorder. The emotional and physical highs and lows of cocaine use correspond to the manic depression cycle of the bipolar patient, making the disorder difficult to diagnosis.
For some bipolar patients, manic and depressive episodes coincide with seasonal changes. Depressive episodes are typical during winter and fall, and manic episodes are more probable in the spring and summer months.
Symptoms of bipolar depressive episodes include low energy levels, feelings of despair, difficulty concentrating, extreme fatigue, and psychomotor retardation (slowed mental and physical capabilities).
Manic episodes are characterized by feelings of euphoria, lack of inhibitions, racing thoughts, diminished need for sleep, talkativeness, increased risk taking, and irritability. In extreme cases, mania can induce hallucinations and other psychotic symptoms such as grandiose illusions.
Treatment
Medication is the most effective treatment for bipolar disorder. A combination of mood stabilizing agents with antidepressants, antipsychotics, and anticonvulsants may be used to regulate manic and depressive episodes.
Mood stabilizing agents are the most commonly prescribed drugs to treat bipolar disorder. Their function is to regulate the manic highs and lows of bipolar disorder. The following drugs are commonly used:
Lithium (Cibalith-S, Eskalith, Lithane, Lithobid, Lithonate, Lithotabs) is one of the oldest and most frequently prescribed drugs available for the treatment of bipolar mania and depression. Because the drug takes four to ten days to reach a therapeutic level in the bloodstream, it sometimes is prescribed in conjunction with neuroleptics and/or benzodiazepines to provide more immediate relief of a manic episode. Lithium also has been shown to be effective in regulating bipolar depression, but is not recommended for mixed mania. Lithium may not be an effective long-term treatment option for rapid cyclers, who typically develop a tolerance for it or may not respond to it. Possible side effects of the drug include weight gain, thirst, nausea, and hand tremors. Prolonged lithium use also may cause hyperthyroidism (a disorder in which the thyroid is overactive, which may cause heart palpitations, nervousness, the presence of goiter, sweating, and a wide array of other symptoms.)
Carbamazepine (Tegretol, Atretol) is an anticonvulsant drug often prescribed in conjunction with other mood stabilizing agents. The drug may be used to treat bipolar patients who have not responded well to lithium therapy. Blurred vision and abnormal eye movement are two possible side effects of carbamazepine therapy.
Valproate (divalproex sodium, or Depakote; valproic acid, or Depakene) is one of the few drugs available that has been proven effective in treating rapid cycling bipolar and mixed states patients. Valproate is prescribed alone or in combination with carbamazepine and/or lithium. Stomach cramps, indigestion, diarrhea, hair loss, appetite loss, nausea, and unusual weight loss or gain are some of the common side effects of valproate.
A mood disorder sometimes called manic-depressive illness or manic-depression that characteristically involves cycles ofdepression and elation or mania. Sometimes the mood switches from high to low and back again are dramatic and rapid, but more often they are gradual and slow, and intervals of normal mood may occur between the high (manic) and low (depressive) phases of the condition. The symptoms of both the depressive and manic cycles may be severe and often lead to impaired functioning.
Both phases of the disease are deleterious. Mania affects thinking, judgment, and social behavior in ways that may cause serious problems and embarrassment. For example, unwise business or financial decisions may be made when an individual is in a manic phase. Depression can also affect thinking, judgment, and social behavior in ways that may cause grave problems. For example, it elevates the risk of suicide. About 5.7 million American adults, or about 2.6 percent of the population aged 18 and older, have bipolar disorder.
Although bipolar disorder often worsens over time if untreated, most people with bipolar disorder can achieve stabilization of their mood swings and reduction of symptoms with proper treatment. Treatment usually consists of medications known as "mood stabilizers."
During a manic episode, a person might impulsively quit a job, charge up huge amounts on credit cards, or feel rested after sleeping two hours. During a depressive episode, the same person might be too tired to get out of bed and full of self-loathing and hopelessness over being unemployed and in debt.
The causes of bipolar disorder aren’t completely understood, but it often runs in families. The first manic or depressive episode of bipolar disorder usually occurs in the teenage years or early adulthood. The symptoms can be subtle and confusing, so many people with bipolar disorder are overlooked or misdiagnosed–resulting in unnecessary suffering. But with proper treatment and support, you can lead a rich and fulfilling life.
Causes and symptoms
Although the source of bipolar disorder has not been clearly identified, a number of genetic and environmental factors appear to be involved in triggering episodes. Bipolar disorder has an inherited component; children who have at least one parent with bipolar disorder are more likely to develop the disorder. They are also more likely to be diagnosed with other psychiatric disorders such as attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Several studies have uncovered possible genetic connections to the predisposition for bipolar disorder. A large study done in Sweden reported in 2009 that schizophrenia and bipolar disorder appeared to share similar genetic causes. Brain imaging studies suggest that there are physical changes in the brains of people with bipolar disorder. It is hypothesized that dopamine and other neurotransmitters involved in mood may be involved. The possible role of hormonal imbalances in bipolar disorder is another area of investigation. Investigators are also researching what, if any, environmental factors may trigger the disorder.
People with bipolar disorder tend to have other psychiatric disorders. Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and ADHD are among the most common. Over one-half of patients diagnosed with bipolar disorder have a history of substance abuse. A high rate of association exists between cocaine abuse and bipolar disorder. The emotional and physical highs and lows of cocaine use correspond to the manic depression cycle of the bipolar patient, making the disorder difficult to diagnosis.
For some bipolar patients, manic and depressive episodes coincide with seasonal changes. Depressive episodes are typical during winter and fall, and manic episodes are more probable in the spring and summer months.
Symptoms of bipolar depressive episodes include low energy levels, feelings of despair, difficulty concentrating, extreme fatigue, and psychomotor retardation (slowed mental and physical capabilities).
Manic episodes are characterized by feelings of euphoria, lack of inhibitions, racing thoughts, diminished need for sleep, talkativeness, increased risk taking, and irritability. In extreme cases, mania can induce hallucinations and other psychotic symptoms such as grandiose illusions.
Treatment
Medication is the most effective treatment for bipolar disorder. A combination of mood stabilizing agents with antidepressants, antipsychotics, and anticonvulsants may be used to regulate manic and depressive episodes.
Mood stabilizing agents are the most commonly prescribed drugs to treat bipolar disorder. Their function is to regulate the manic highs and lows of bipolar disorder. The following drugs are commonly used:
Lithium (Cibalith-S, Eskalith, Lithane, Lithobid, Lithonate, Lithotabs) is one of the oldest and most frequently prescribed drugs available for the treatment of bipolar mania and depression. Because the drug takes four to ten days to reach a therapeutic level in the bloodstream, it sometimes is prescribed in conjunction with neuroleptics and/or benzodiazepines to provide more immediate relief of a manic episode. Lithium also has been shown to be effective in regulating bipolar depression, but is not recommended for mixed mania. Lithium may not be an effective long-term treatment option for rapid cyclers, who typically develop a tolerance for it or may not respond to it. Possible side effects of the drug include weight gain, thirst, nausea, and hand tremors. Prolonged lithium use also may cause hyperthyroidism (a disorder in which the thyroid is overactive, which may cause heart palpitations, nervousness, the presence of goiter, sweating, and a wide array of other symptoms.)
Carbamazepine (Tegretol, Atretol) is an anticonvulsant drug often prescribed in conjunction with other mood stabilizing agents. The drug may be used to treat bipolar patients who have not responded well to lithium therapy. Blurred vision and abnormal eye movement are two possible side effects of carbamazepine therapy.
Valproate (divalproex sodium, or Depakote; valproic acid, or Depakene) is one of the few drugs available that has been proven effective in treating rapid cycling bipolar and mixed states patients. Valproate is prescribed alone or in combination with carbamazepine and/or lithium. Stomach cramps, indigestion, diarrhea, hair loss, appetite loss, nausea, and unusual weight loss or gain are some of the common side effects of valproate.
Definition of Major Depressive Disorder | Symptoms and Treatment
Major Depression: A disease with certain characteristic signs and symptoms that interferes with the ability to work, sleep, eat, and enjoy once pleasurable activities.
The characteristic signs and symptoms of major depression include loss of interest in activities that were once interesting or enjoyable, including sex; loss of appetite (anorexia) with weight loss or overeating with weight gain; loss of emotional expression (flat affect); a persistently sad, anxious or empty mood; feelings of hopelessness, pessimism, guilt, worthlessness, or helplessness; social withdrawal;
unusual fatigue, low energy level, a feeling of being slowed down; sleep disturbance with insomnia, early-morning awakening, or oversleeping; trouble concentrating, remembering, or making decisions; unusual restlessness or irritability; persistent physical problems such as headaches, digestive disorders, or chronic pain that do not respond to treatment; thoughts of death or suicide or suicide attempts. Alcohol or drug abuse may be signs of depression.
Feeling sad and helpless? It's possible you have major depression, also known as clinical depression. People with major depression feel a profound and constant sense of hopelessness and despair.
With major depression, you may have symptoms that make it difficult to work, study, sleep, eat, and enjoy friends and activities. Some people have clinical depression only once in their life. Others may have it several times in a lifetime.
There are several different types of clinical depression (mood disorders that include depressive symptoms):
Major Depression is an episode of change in mood that lasts for weeks or months. It is one of the most severe types of depression. It usually involves a low or irritable mood and/or a loss of interest or pleasure in usual activities. It interferes with one's normal functioning and often includes physical symptoms. A person may experience only one episode of major depressive disorder, but often there are repeated episodes over an individual's lifetime.
Dysthymia, often commonly called melancholy, is less severe than major depression but usually goes on for a longer period, often several years. There are usually periods of feeling fairly normal between episodes of low mood. The symptoms usually do not completely disrupt one's normal activities.
Bipolar disorder involves episodes of depression, usually severe, alternating with episodes of extreme elation called mania. This condition is sometimes called by its older name, manic depression. The depression that is associated with bipolar disorder is often referred to as bipolar depression. When depression is not associated with bipolar disorder, it is called unipolar depression.
Seasonal Depression, which medical professionals call seasonal affective disorder, or SAD, is depression that occurs only at a certain time of the year, usually winter, when the number of daylight hours is lower. It is sometimes called "winter blues." Although it is predictable, it can be very severe.
Psychotic Depression refers to the situation when depression and hallucinations or delusions are experienced at the same time (co-occur). This may be the result of depression that becomes so severe that it results in the sufferer losing touch with reality. Individuals who primarily suffer from a loss of touch with reality (for example, schizophrenia) are thought to suffer from an imbalance of dopamine activity in the brain and to be at risk of subsequently becoming depressed.
Medication
There are more than 20 antidepressant drugs currently available. Antidepressants correct the chemical imbalance in the brain. Because a variety of drugs target different neurotransmitters and imbalances of these neurotransmitters can vary from patient to patient, some drugs may be more effective than others for any individual. Sometimes a combination of drugs is best.
There are four (4) groups of antidepressant medications most commonly used to treat depression:
Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), which include:
amitriptyline (Elavil)
imipramine (Trofanil,Janimine)
nortryptyline (Pamelor)
despiramine (Norpramin)
TCAs work by slowing the rate at which neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) re-enter brain cells. This increases the concentration of the neurotransmitters in the central nervous system which relieves depression.
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) include phenelzine (Nardil) and tranylcypromine (Parnate). MAO is an enzyme responsible for breaking down certain neurotransmitters in the brain. MAOIs inhibit this enzyme and restore more normal mood states.
Lithium carbonates, including Eskalith and Lithobid. Lithium reduces excessive nerve activity in the brain by altering the chemical balance within certain nerve cells. This drug has been used to improve the benefit of SSRIs and alone is effective in treating bipolar disorder.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) include:
fluoxetine (Prozac)
fluvoxamine (Luvox)
paroxetine (Paxil)
sertraline (Zoloft)
citalopram (Celexa)
escitalopram oxalate (Lexapro)
SSRIs act specifically on serotonin, making it more available for nerve cells, thus easing the transmission of messages without disrupting the chemistry of the brain. Two other antidepressants that affect two neurotransmitters, serotonin and norepinephrine, are venlafaxine (Effexor) and nefazodone (Serzone). Another of the newer antidepressants, bupropion (Wellbutrin), is chemically unrelated to the other antidepressants. It has more effect on norepinephrine and dopamine than on serotonin.
Medication usually produces a marked improvement by six weeks, but may require up to 12 weeks for full effect.
The characteristic signs and symptoms of major depression include loss of interest in activities that were once interesting or enjoyable, including sex; loss of appetite (anorexia) with weight loss or overeating with weight gain; loss of emotional expression (flat affect); a persistently sad, anxious or empty mood; feelings of hopelessness, pessimism, guilt, worthlessness, or helplessness; social withdrawal;
unusual fatigue, low energy level, a feeling of being slowed down; sleep disturbance with insomnia, early-morning awakening, or oversleeping; trouble concentrating, remembering, or making decisions; unusual restlessness or irritability; persistent physical problems such as headaches, digestive disorders, or chronic pain that do not respond to treatment; thoughts of death or suicide or suicide attempts. Alcohol or drug abuse may be signs of depression.
Feeling sad and helpless? It's possible you have major depression, also known as clinical depression. People with major depression feel a profound and constant sense of hopelessness and despair.
With major depression, you may have symptoms that make it difficult to work, study, sleep, eat, and enjoy friends and activities. Some people have clinical depression only once in their life. Others may have it several times in a lifetime.
There are several different types of clinical depression (mood disorders that include depressive symptoms):
Major Depression is an episode of change in mood that lasts for weeks or months. It is one of the most severe types of depression. It usually involves a low or irritable mood and/or a loss of interest or pleasure in usual activities. It interferes with one's normal functioning and often includes physical symptoms. A person may experience only one episode of major depressive disorder, but often there are repeated episodes over an individual's lifetime.
Dysthymia, often commonly called melancholy, is less severe than major depression but usually goes on for a longer period, often several years. There are usually periods of feeling fairly normal between episodes of low mood. The symptoms usually do not completely disrupt one's normal activities.
Bipolar disorder involves episodes of depression, usually severe, alternating with episodes of extreme elation called mania. This condition is sometimes called by its older name, manic depression. The depression that is associated with bipolar disorder is often referred to as bipolar depression. When depression is not associated with bipolar disorder, it is called unipolar depression.
Seasonal Depression, which medical professionals call seasonal affective disorder, or SAD, is depression that occurs only at a certain time of the year, usually winter, when the number of daylight hours is lower. It is sometimes called "winter blues." Although it is predictable, it can be very severe.
Psychotic Depression refers to the situation when depression and hallucinations or delusions are experienced at the same time (co-occur). This may be the result of depression that becomes so severe that it results in the sufferer losing touch with reality. Individuals who primarily suffer from a loss of touch with reality (for example, schizophrenia) are thought to suffer from an imbalance of dopamine activity in the brain and to be at risk of subsequently becoming depressed.
Medication
There are more than 20 antidepressant drugs currently available. Antidepressants correct the chemical imbalance in the brain. Because a variety of drugs target different neurotransmitters and imbalances of these neurotransmitters can vary from patient to patient, some drugs may be more effective than others for any individual. Sometimes a combination of drugs is best.
There are four (4) groups of antidepressant medications most commonly used to treat depression:
Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), which include:
amitriptyline (Elavil)
imipramine (Trofanil,Janimine)
nortryptyline (Pamelor)
despiramine (Norpramin)
TCAs work by slowing the rate at which neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) re-enter brain cells. This increases the concentration of the neurotransmitters in the central nervous system which relieves depression.
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) include phenelzine (Nardil) and tranylcypromine (Parnate). MAO is an enzyme responsible for breaking down certain neurotransmitters in the brain. MAOIs inhibit this enzyme and restore more normal mood states.
Lithium carbonates, including Eskalith and Lithobid. Lithium reduces excessive nerve activity in the brain by altering the chemical balance within certain nerve cells. This drug has been used to improve the benefit of SSRIs and alone is effective in treating bipolar disorder.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) include:
fluoxetine (Prozac)
fluvoxamine (Luvox)
paroxetine (Paxil)
sertraline (Zoloft)
citalopram (Celexa)
escitalopram oxalate (Lexapro)
SSRIs act specifically on serotonin, making it more available for nerve cells, thus easing the transmission of messages without disrupting the chemistry of the brain. Two other antidepressants that affect two neurotransmitters, serotonin and norepinephrine, are venlafaxine (Effexor) and nefazodone (Serzone). Another of the newer antidepressants, bupropion (Wellbutrin), is chemically unrelated to the other antidepressants. It has more effect on norepinephrine and dopamine than on serotonin.
Medication usually produces a marked improvement by six weeks, but may require up to 12 weeks for full effect.
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Common Mental Disorder
Definition of Generalized Anxiety/Panic Disorder | Symptoms and Treatment
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (Generalized Anxiety Disorder) is characterized by 6 months or more of chronic, exaggerated worry and tension that is unfounded or much more severe than the normal anxiety most people experience. People with this disorder usually expect the worst; they worry excessively about money, health, family, or work, even when there are no signs of trouble.
They are unable to relax and often suffer from insomnia. Many people with Generalized Anxiety Disorder also have physical symptoms, such as fatigue, trembling, muscle tension, headaches, irritability, or hot flashes. Fortunately, through research supported by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), effective treatments have been developed to help people with Generalized Anxiety Disorder.
A great deal of anxiety and worry that is experienced more days than not for a period of at least six months. This anxiety and worry can be about a number of different things (for example, school, relationships, work, etc.). In addition, the worry or anxiety is not about a symptom of another anxiety disorder, such as panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, or posttraumatic stress disorder.
The worry is very difficult to control.
At least one of the following symptoms is experienced along with the anxiety and worry:
feeling restless or on edge
easily getting tired
having a hard time concentrating
being irritable
having tension in your muscles
difficulties sleeping
The anxiety, worry, and symptoms described above cause many problems in your life,
Causes and symptoms:
Generalized anxiety disorder afflicts between 2-3% of the general population, and is slightly more common in women than in men. It accounts for almost one-third of cases referred to psychiatrists by general practitioners.
Generalized anxiety disorder may result from a combination of causes. Some people are genetically predisposed to developing it. Psychological traumas that occur during childhood, such as prolonged separation from parents, may make people more vulnerable as well. Stressful life events, such as a move, a major job change, the loss of a loved one, or a divorce, can trigger or contribute to the anxiety.
Psychologically, the person with generalized anxiety disorder may develop a sense of dread for no apparent reason-the irrational feeling that some nameless catastrophe is about to happen. Physical symptoms similar to those found with panic disorder may be present, although not as severe. They may include trembling, sweating, heart palpitations (the feeling of the heart pounding in the chest), nausea, and "butterflies in the stomach."
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition, a person must have at least three of the following symptoms, with some being present more days than not for at least six months, in order to be diagnosed with generalized anxiety disorder:
restlessness or feeling on edge
being easily fatigued
difficulty concentrating
irritability
muscle tension
sleep disturbance
Treatment:
Over the short term, a group of tranquilizers called benzodiazepines, such as clonazepam (Klonipin) may help ease the symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder.
Sometimesantidepressant drugs, such as amitryptiline (Elavil), or selective s
erotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), such as paroxetine (Paxil), escitalopram (Lexapro), and venlafaxine (Effexor), which also has norepinephrine, may be preferred. Other SSRIs are fluoxetine (Prozac) and sertraline (Zoloft).
Psychotherapy can be effective in treating generalized anxiety disorder. The therapy may take many forms. In some cases, psychodynamically-oriented psychotherapy can help patients work through this anxiety and solve problems in their lives.
Cognitive behavioral therapy aims to reshape the way people perceive and react to potential stressors in their lives. Relaxation techniques have also been used in treatment, as well as in prevention efforts.
They are unable to relax and often suffer from insomnia. Many people with Generalized Anxiety Disorder also have physical symptoms, such as fatigue, trembling, muscle tension, headaches, irritability, or hot flashes. Fortunately, through research supported by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), effective treatments have been developed to help people with Generalized Anxiety Disorder.
A great deal of anxiety and worry that is experienced more days than not for a period of at least six months. This anxiety and worry can be about a number of different things (for example, school, relationships, work, etc.). In addition, the worry or anxiety is not about a symptom of another anxiety disorder, such as panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, or posttraumatic stress disorder.
The worry is very difficult to control.
At least one of the following symptoms is experienced along with the anxiety and worry:
feeling restless or on edge
easily getting tired
having a hard time concentrating
being irritable
having tension in your muscles
difficulties sleeping
The anxiety, worry, and symptoms described above cause many problems in your life,
Causes and symptoms:
Generalized anxiety disorder afflicts between 2-3% of the general population, and is slightly more common in women than in men. It accounts for almost one-third of cases referred to psychiatrists by general practitioners.
Generalized anxiety disorder may result from a combination of causes. Some people are genetically predisposed to developing it. Psychological traumas that occur during childhood, such as prolonged separation from parents, may make people more vulnerable as well. Stressful life events, such as a move, a major job change, the loss of a loved one, or a divorce, can trigger or contribute to the anxiety.
Psychologically, the person with generalized anxiety disorder may develop a sense of dread for no apparent reason-the irrational feeling that some nameless catastrophe is about to happen. Physical symptoms similar to those found with panic disorder may be present, although not as severe. They may include trembling, sweating, heart palpitations (the feeling of the heart pounding in the chest), nausea, and "butterflies in the stomach."
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition, a person must have at least three of the following symptoms, with some being present more days than not for at least six months, in order to be diagnosed with generalized anxiety disorder:
restlessness or feeling on edge
being easily fatigued
difficulty concentrating
irritability
muscle tension
sleep disturbance
Treatment:
Over the short term, a group of tranquilizers called benzodiazepines, such as clonazepam (Klonipin) may help ease the symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder.
Sometimesantidepressant drugs, such as amitryptiline (Elavil), or selective s
erotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), such as paroxetine (Paxil), escitalopram (Lexapro), and venlafaxine (Effexor), which also has norepinephrine, may be preferred. Other SSRIs are fluoxetine (Prozac) and sertraline (Zoloft).
Psychotherapy can be effective in treating generalized anxiety disorder. The therapy may take many forms. In some cases, psychodynamically-oriented psychotherapy can help patients work through this anxiety and solve problems in their lives.
Cognitive behavioral therapy aims to reshape the way people perceive and react to potential stressors in their lives. Relaxation techniques have also been used in treatment, as well as in prevention efforts.
Definition of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder | Symptoms and Treatment
What is obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)?
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is an anxiety disorder characterized by uncontrollable, unwanted thoughts and repetitive, ritualized behaviors you feel compelled to perform. If you have OCD, you probably recognize that your obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors are irrational – but even so, you feel unable to resist them and break free.
Like a needle getting stuck on an old record, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) causes the brain to get stuck on a particular thought or urge. For example, you may check the stove twenty times to make sure it’s really turned off, wash your hands until they’re scrubbed raw, or drive around for hours to make sure that the bump you heard while driving wasn’t a person you ran over.
Fear, mannerisms and diligence can be observed as early signs of OCD or obsessive compulsive disorder. In fact, there is only a thin line that separates both. The strength, intensity and frequency tend to enhance at a slow pace. This is the reason that people do not identify the symptoms and when they actually do, it is already too late.
It is important for people to understand the difference between OCPD and OCD as it rules out advance OCD symptoms awareness completely. People with OCPD or obsessive compulsive personality disorder remains unaffected about their reactions and behaviors.
People suffering from obsessive compulsive disorder remain unaffected by their actions and also intensity of what they are doing. They tend to show secondary avoidance behaviors or even make habitual actions they think would facilitate them avoid the OCD source .
Treatment :
Obsessive-compulsive disorder can be effectively treated by a combination of cognitive-behavioral therapy and medication that regulates the brain's serotonin levels. Drugs that are approved to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder include fluoxetine (Prozac), fluvoxamine (Luvox), paroxetine (Paxil), and sertraline (Zoloft), all selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) that affect the level of serotonin in the brain.
Older drugs include the antidepressant clomipramine (Anafranil), a widely studied drug in the treatment of OCD, but one that carries a greater risk of side effects. Drugs should be taken for at least 12 weeks before a person decides whether they are effective.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) teaches patients how to confront their fears and obsessive thoughts by making the effort to endure or wait out the activities that usually cause anxiety without compulsively performing the calming rituals. Eventually their anxiety decreases. People who are able to alter their thought patterns in this way can lessen their preoccupation with the compulsive rituals. At the same time, the patient is encouraged to refocus attention elsewhere, such as on a hobby.
In a few very severe cases in which patients have not responded to medication or behavioral therapy, brain surgery may be tried as a way of relieving the unwanted symptoms. Surgery can help up to one third of patients with the most severe form of OCD. The most common operation involves removing a section of the brain called the cingulate cortex. The serious side effects of this surgery for some patients are seizures, personality changes, and less ability to plan.
The most effective treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder is often cognitive-behavioral therapy. Antidepressants are sometimes used in conjunction with therapy, although medication alone is rarely effective in relieving the symptoms of OCD.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
Cognitive-behavioral therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) involves two components:
Exposure and response prevention involves repeated exposure to the source of your obsession. Then you are asked to refrain from the compulsive behavior you’d usually perform to reduce your anxiety. For example, if you are a compulsive hand washer, you might be asked to touch the door handle in a public restroom and then be prevented from washing. As you sit with the anxiety, the urge to wash your hands will gradually begin to go away on its own. In this way, you learn that you don’t need the ritual to get rid of your anxiety—that you have some control over your obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors.
Cognitive therapy focuses on the catastrophic thoughts and exaggerated sense of responsibility you feel. A big part of cognitive therapy for OCD is teaching you healthy and effective ways of responding to obsessive thoughts, without resorting to compulsive behavior.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is an anxiety disorder characterized by uncontrollable, unwanted thoughts and repetitive, ritualized behaviors you feel compelled to perform. If you have OCD, you probably recognize that your obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors are irrational – but even so, you feel unable to resist them and break free.
Like a needle getting stuck on an old record, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) causes the brain to get stuck on a particular thought or urge. For example, you may check the stove twenty times to make sure it’s really turned off, wash your hands until they’re scrubbed raw, or drive around for hours to make sure that the bump you heard while driving wasn’t a person you ran over.
Fear, mannerisms and diligence can be observed as early signs of OCD or obsessive compulsive disorder. In fact, there is only a thin line that separates both. The strength, intensity and frequency tend to enhance at a slow pace. This is the reason that people do not identify the symptoms and when they actually do, it is already too late.
It is important for people to understand the difference between OCPD and OCD as it rules out advance OCD symptoms awareness completely. People with OCPD or obsessive compulsive personality disorder remains unaffected about their reactions and behaviors.
People suffering from obsessive compulsive disorder remain unaffected by their actions and also intensity of what they are doing. They tend to show secondary avoidance behaviors or even make habitual actions they think would facilitate them avoid the OCD source .
Treatment :
Obsessive-compulsive disorder can be effectively treated by a combination of cognitive-behavioral therapy and medication that regulates the brain's serotonin levels. Drugs that are approved to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder include fluoxetine (Prozac), fluvoxamine (Luvox), paroxetine (Paxil), and sertraline (Zoloft), all selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) that affect the level of serotonin in the brain.
Older drugs include the antidepressant clomipramine (Anafranil), a widely studied drug in the treatment of OCD, but one that carries a greater risk of side effects. Drugs should be taken for at least 12 weeks before a person decides whether they are effective.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) teaches patients how to confront their fears and obsessive thoughts by making the effort to endure or wait out the activities that usually cause anxiety without compulsively performing the calming rituals. Eventually their anxiety decreases. People who are able to alter their thought patterns in this way can lessen their preoccupation with the compulsive rituals. At the same time, the patient is encouraged to refocus attention elsewhere, such as on a hobby.
In a few very severe cases in which patients have not responded to medication or behavioral therapy, brain surgery may be tried as a way of relieving the unwanted symptoms. Surgery can help up to one third of patients with the most severe form of OCD. The most common operation involves removing a section of the brain called the cingulate cortex. The serious side effects of this surgery for some patients are seizures, personality changes, and less ability to plan.
The most effective treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder is often cognitive-behavioral therapy. Antidepressants are sometimes used in conjunction with therapy, although medication alone is rarely effective in relieving the symptoms of OCD.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
Cognitive-behavioral therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) involves two components:
Exposure and response prevention involves repeated exposure to the source of your obsession. Then you are asked to refrain from the compulsive behavior you’d usually perform to reduce your anxiety. For example, if you are a compulsive hand washer, you might be asked to touch the door handle in a public restroom and then be prevented from washing. As you sit with the anxiety, the urge to wash your hands will gradually begin to go away on its own. In this way, you learn that you don’t need the ritual to get rid of your anxiety—that you have some control over your obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors.
Cognitive therapy focuses on the catastrophic thoughts and exaggerated sense of responsibility you feel. A big part of cognitive therapy for OCD is teaching you healthy and effective ways of responding to obsessive thoughts, without resorting to compulsive behavior.
Definition of ADD/ADHD | Symptoms and Treatment
The definition of ADHD... ADD...and Attention Deficit Disorder...all mean the same thing.It's a condition that develops within some children in their early childhood years, but can continue into adulthood. ADD ADHD can make it difficult for people to be able to control their behavior, as well as various other symptoms.
The current estimation is that between 3 and 5 percent of American children suffer from some degree of attention deficit disorder. This translates to approximately 2 million children across the United States. Similarly, between 2 and 4 percent of all adults in the USA suffer from ADD ADHD.
What does this mean in a practical sense or easy to understand?
It means that in any given classroom with an average size (between 25 and 30 children), there is likely to be at least one child who has ADD ADHD, whether he or she has been diagnosed with the disorder or not. It also means that a business employing 50 people will also have one or two ADD ADHD sufferers.
Since that time, there have been thousands upon thousands of scientific, academic, and medical papers written with regards to this disorder, providing a sizeable amount of information with regards to the definition of adhd, its causes, its nature, its progression, and its treatments.
A person with attention deficit disorder faces a difficult but not insurmountable task ahead. In order to achieve his or her full potential, the add adhd should receive help, guidance, and understanding from family, friends, counselors, and the public education system.
The symptoms of Attention Deficit Disorder exist for most people. Everybody has some of these symptoms some of the time.
However, individuals with add adhd have more of these symptoms... more of the time and to the point that it interferes with their ability to function normally at school, work and social settings. It can also limit their full potential.
ADD ADHD people, those under the definition of adhd, are often noted for their inconsistencies. One day they can "do it," and the next they cant. They may have difficulty remembering simple things yet have "steel trap" memories for complex issues.
To avoid disappointment, frustration and discouragement don't expect their highest level of competence to be the standard. It's an unrealistic expectation of a person with attention deficit disorder.
Treatment of combined ADHD
Few articles have been published about the treatment of people who have ADHD. My clinical experience, having seen more than 100 patients with both disorders, shows that coexisting ADHD can be treated very well. It’s important to always diagnose and treat the BMD first, as ADHD treatment may precipitate mania or otherwise worsen BMD.
Outcomes for my patients treated for both ADHD and BMD have thus far been good. The majority have been able to return to work. Perhaps more importantly, they report that they feel more “normal” in their moods and in their ability to fulfill their roles as spouses, parents, and employees. It is impossible to determine whether these significantly improved outcomes are due to enhanced mood stability, or whether treatment of ADHD makes for better medication compliance.
The key lies in the recognition that both diagnoses are present and that the disorders will respond to independent, but coordinated, treatment.
The current estimation is that between 3 and 5 percent of American children suffer from some degree of attention deficit disorder. This translates to approximately 2 million children across the United States. Similarly, between 2 and 4 percent of all adults in the USA suffer from ADD ADHD.
What does this mean in a practical sense or easy to understand?
It means that in any given classroom with an average size (between 25 and 30 children), there is likely to be at least one child who has ADD ADHD, whether he or she has been diagnosed with the disorder or not. It also means that a business employing 50 people will also have one or two ADD ADHD sufferers.
Since that time, there have been thousands upon thousands of scientific, academic, and medical papers written with regards to this disorder, providing a sizeable amount of information with regards to the definition of adhd, its causes, its nature, its progression, and its treatments.
A person with attention deficit disorder faces a difficult but not insurmountable task ahead. In order to achieve his or her full potential, the add adhd should receive help, guidance, and understanding from family, friends, counselors, and the public education system.
The symptoms of Attention Deficit Disorder exist for most people. Everybody has some of these symptoms some of the time.
However, individuals with add adhd have more of these symptoms... more of the time and to the point that it interferes with their ability to function normally at school, work and social settings. It can also limit their full potential.
ADD ADHD people, those under the definition of adhd, are often noted for their inconsistencies. One day they can "do it," and the next they cant. They may have difficulty remembering simple things yet have "steel trap" memories for complex issues.
To avoid disappointment, frustration and discouragement don't expect their highest level of competence to be the standard. It's an unrealistic expectation of a person with attention deficit disorder.
Treatment of combined ADHD
Few articles have been published about the treatment of people who have ADHD. My clinical experience, having seen more than 100 patients with both disorders, shows that coexisting ADHD can be treated very well. It’s important to always diagnose and treat the BMD first, as ADHD treatment may precipitate mania or otherwise worsen BMD.
Outcomes for my patients treated for both ADHD and BMD have thus far been good. The majority have been able to return to work. Perhaps more importantly, they report that they feel more “normal” in their moods and in their ability to fulfill their roles as spouses, parents, and employees. It is impossible to determine whether these significantly improved outcomes are due to enhanced mood stability, or whether treatment of ADHD makes for better medication compliance.
The key lies in the recognition that both diagnoses are present and that the disorders will respond to independent, but coordinated, treatment.
Definition of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder | Symptoms and Treatment
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: a psychological reaction that occurs after experiencing a highly stressing event (as wartime combat, physical violence, or a natural disaster) outside the range of normal human experience and that is usually characterized by depression, anxiety, flashbacks, recurrent nightmares, and avoidance of reminders of the event—abbreviation PTSD; called also delayed-stress disorder, delayed-stress syndrome, post-traumatic stress syndrome; compare combat fatigue.
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can develop following a traumatic event that threatens your safety or makes you feel helpless.
Most people associate PTSD with battle-scarred soldiers—and military combat is the most common cause in men—but any overwhelming life experience can trigger PTSD, especially if the event feels unpredictable and uncontrollable.
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can affect those who personally experience the catastrophe, those who witness it, and those who pick up the pieces afterwards, including emergency workers and law enforcement officers. It can even occur in the friends or family members of those who went through the actual trauma.
PTSD develops differently from person to person. While the symptoms of PTSD most commonly develop in the hours or days following the traumatic event, it can sometimes take weeks, months, or even years before they appear.
SYMPTOMS
In Posttraumatic stress disorder, people experience the frequency, cause unwanted memories of the traumatic event again. Nightmares are common. Sometimes life events as if it happened again (flashbacks). Great disruption often occurs when people are dealing with events or circumstances that remind them of the traumatic origin. Suppose some memory is a celebration of the traumatic event, seeing a gun after being hit with a weapon when the robbery, and was in a small boat sank after the accident.
People constantly avoiding things that remind of the trauma. They could also try to avoid thoughts, feelings, or conversations about the traumatic event and to avoid activities, circumstances, or people who can remind. Avoidance may also include memory loss (amnesia) for certain aspects of the traumatic event.
People experience numbness or death in emotional reactions and symptoms that appear to increase (such as difficulty falling asleep, being alert to signs of danger are at risk, or being easily startled). Symptoms of depression are common, and people show little interest in previously enjoyable activity. Feelings of guilt are also common. For example, their might feel guilty that when they survived when others did not.
TREATMENT
Treatment requires psychotherapy (including contact therapy) and drug therapy. Because anxiety often associated with severe shaking, soul memories, psychotherapy support plays a very important task in treatment.
Therapist is to openly recognize the empathy and sympathy for the psychological pain. Therapists to reassure people that their responses suggested that they face a real but their memories (as a form of therapeutic contact).
They are also taught how to control anxiety, which helps modulate and integrate into the tortured memories of their personalities.
Insight-oriented psychotherapy can help people who feel guilty to understand why they are punishing themselves and help eliminate feelings of guilt.
Antidepressants seem to have several advantages. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), tricyclic antidepressants, and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) really helped.
Chronic Posttraumatic stress disorder may not disappear but are often greatly reduced over time even without treatment. Nevertheless, some people become permanent disability with such disorders
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can develop following a traumatic event that threatens your safety or makes you feel helpless.
Most people associate PTSD with battle-scarred soldiers—and military combat is the most common cause in men—but any overwhelming life experience can trigger PTSD, especially if the event feels unpredictable and uncontrollable.
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can affect those who personally experience the catastrophe, those who witness it, and those who pick up the pieces afterwards, including emergency workers and law enforcement officers. It can even occur in the friends or family members of those who went through the actual trauma.
PTSD develops differently from person to person. While the symptoms of PTSD most commonly develop in the hours or days following the traumatic event, it can sometimes take weeks, months, or even years before they appear.
SYMPTOMS
In Posttraumatic stress disorder, people experience the frequency, cause unwanted memories of the traumatic event again. Nightmares are common. Sometimes life events as if it happened again (flashbacks). Great disruption often occurs when people are dealing with events or circumstances that remind them of the traumatic origin. Suppose some memory is a celebration of the traumatic event, seeing a gun after being hit with a weapon when the robbery, and was in a small boat sank after the accident.
People constantly avoiding things that remind of the trauma. They could also try to avoid thoughts, feelings, or conversations about the traumatic event and to avoid activities, circumstances, or people who can remind. Avoidance may also include memory loss (amnesia) for certain aspects of the traumatic event.
People experience numbness or death in emotional reactions and symptoms that appear to increase (such as difficulty falling asleep, being alert to signs of danger are at risk, or being easily startled). Symptoms of depression are common, and people show little interest in previously enjoyable activity. Feelings of guilt are also common. For example, their might feel guilty that when they survived when others did not.
TREATMENT
Treatment requires psychotherapy (including contact therapy) and drug therapy. Because anxiety often associated with severe shaking, soul memories, psychotherapy support plays a very important task in treatment.
Therapist is to openly recognize the empathy and sympathy for the psychological pain. Therapists to reassure people that their responses suggested that they face a real but their memories (as a form of therapeutic contact).
They are also taught how to control anxiety, which helps modulate and integrate into the tortured memories of their personalities.
Insight-oriented psychotherapy can help people who feel guilty to understand why they are punishing themselves and help eliminate feelings of guilt.
Antidepressants seem to have several advantages. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), tricyclic antidepressants, and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) really helped.
Chronic Posttraumatic stress disorder may not disappear but are often greatly reduced over time even without treatment. Nevertheless, some people become permanent disability with such disorders
Labels:
Common Mental Disorder
Definition of Abnormal Psychology and Treatment
Abnormal Behavior: Probably no aspect of behavior is more challenging to understand than psychopathology--the study of mental disorders. In everyday life, people often talk about "mental illness", a term which echoes the medical background of many mental health practictioners. This medical model (embraced by the Biological approach) assumes that the cause of psychopathology is to be found in physical malfunctions of the brain and nervous system.
However, not all approaches agree that all disorders have purely physical causes; indeed, the other approaches generally argue that learning often contributes to behavioral problems (such as phobias and stress). In order to avoid prejudging the cause of observed problems, the term "abnormal behavior" is preferable to terms like "mental illness".
Names are important when it comes to discussing abnormal behavior, because in everyday life, the use of terms related to pathology can often have negative social effects, called stigmatizing. Even among professionals, there is a tendency to equate the problem with the person, so that one speaks of "a schizophrenic" rather than "a person with schizophrenia".
(If this distinction seems petty, try substituting "flu" for "schizophrenia"--does it seem reasonable to equate the person with that illness?) Issues like this demonstrate that the social dimension of how we respond to abnormal behavior is important, and not easily separable from the behavior itself.
The reality is that public understanding of abnormal behavior is fairly limited. While it has improved since the days of early asylums like Bedlam (in London) and Bicetre (near Paris), most people tend to be wary or even frightened when they encounter behavior which seems very atypical. This is most obvious when considering disorders like schizophrenia, where the individual may experience hallucinations and severe delusions,
But it is also true that most people have little understanding of mood disorders like depression, or the real nature of drug addiction, or many other problems described as "abnormal behavior". In some respects, the Internet is helping, by making it easier for people to access information about both health and pathology, but the reality is that right now we still don't have all the answers when it comes to understanding and treating abnormal behavior.
In order to understand abnormal psychology, it is essential to first understand what we mean by the term "abnormal"? On the surface, the meaning seems obvious: something that is outside of the norm. But are we talking about the norms of a particular group, gender or age? Many human behaviors can follow what is known as the normal curve. Looking at this bell-shaped curve, the majority of individuals are clustered around the highest point of the curve, which is known as the average. People who fall very far at either end of the normal curve might be considered "abnormal."
It is important to note that the distinctions of normal and abnormal are not synonymous with good or bad. Consider a characteristic such as intelligence. A person who falls at the very upper end of the curve would fit under our definition of abnormal; this person would also be considered a genius. Obviously, this is an instance where falling outside of the norms is actually a good thing.
When you think about abnormal psychology, rather than focus on the distinction between what is normal and what is abnormal, focus instead on the level of distress or disruption that a troubling behavior might cause. If a behavior is causing problems in a person's life or is disruptive to other people, then this would be an "abnormal" behavior that may require some type of mental health intervention.
Perspectives in Abnormal Psychology
There are a number of different perspectives used in abnormal psychology. While some psychologists or psychiatrists may focus on a single perspectives, many mental health professionals us elements from multiple areas in order to better understand and treat psychological disorders.
Perspectives on Aetiology and Treatment
If one seeks to understand abnormal behavior, it is useful to start with a definition of what is "abnormal". As the text notes, criteria have changed over time--incidents like the Salem Witch Trials in the 1700's reflected a view that interpreted pathology in terms of demonic possession. (It now appears the real cause was poisoning by a fungus from spoiled grain, which led to a panic by the community in response to strange behavior by those poisoned.)
Today, diagnostic criteria try to consider behavior in terms of the person's ability to function and reported quality of life (i.e., maladaptiveness and suffering). The use of diagnostic categories, based primarily on symptoms, is an attempt to group together similar cases, in much the way that early botanists categorized similar plants. (In both cases, the assumption is that categorizing is the first step towards a deeper understanding.) The most widely used systems for diagnostic classification are Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV (DSM_IV) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD).
Diagnosis, of course, is normally seen as the first step to understanding the cause (aetiology) of the abnormal behavior, and therefore to identifying an appropriate treatment. While this process has proven very successful in dealing with communicable diseases like influenza and measles, it has had less overall success in dealing with abnormal behavior. In part, this reflects theoretical disagreements among the five approaches about aetiology, and therefore about how best to treat a problem.
A second factor which hampers the effectiveness of diagnosis based on symptoms is that similar behaviors may result from different causes. (For example, an elderly person showing delusions may be suffering from paranoia, or may simply have an undiagnosed hearing impairment which leads them to misinterpret the words and actions of others!)
Even the process by which health practitioners (and society) diagnose problems and disorders can pose problems--for example, you are less likely to be accurately diagnosed if the practitioner is from a different cultural or ethnic background than your own. In fairness, the groups that publish the most widely used standards for diagnosis, the American Psychiatric Association (DSM-IV) and the World Health Organization (ICD-9), are aware of the difficulties, and are striving to improve the accuracy and reliability of diagnosis, but the present system is far from perfect.
It is not possible here to discuss all details of diagnosis and treatment, or to discuss the nature of every disorder. (The text provides more information on these topics, of course.) However, the following resources may be useful if you are seeking additional information, either about causes and treatment of abnormal behavior in general, or how specific approaches deal with particular forms of abnormal behavior.
However, not all approaches agree that all disorders have purely physical causes; indeed, the other approaches generally argue that learning often contributes to behavioral problems (such as phobias and stress). In order to avoid prejudging the cause of observed problems, the term "abnormal behavior" is preferable to terms like "mental illness".
Names are important when it comes to discussing abnormal behavior, because in everyday life, the use of terms related to pathology can often have negative social effects, called stigmatizing. Even among professionals, there is a tendency to equate the problem with the person, so that one speaks of "a schizophrenic" rather than "a person with schizophrenia".
(If this distinction seems petty, try substituting "flu" for "schizophrenia"--does it seem reasonable to equate the person with that illness?) Issues like this demonstrate that the social dimension of how we respond to abnormal behavior is important, and not easily separable from the behavior itself.
The reality is that public understanding of abnormal behavior is fairly limited. While it has improved since the days of early asylums like Bedlam (in London) and Bicetre (near Paris), most people tend to be wary or even frightened when they encounter behavior which seems very atypical. This is most obvious when considering disorders like schizophrenia, where the individual may experience hallucinations and severe delusions,
But it is also true that most people have little understanding of mood disorders like depression, or the real nature of drug addiction, or many other problems described as "abnormal behavior". In some respects, the Internet is helping, by making it easier for people to access information about both health and pathology, but the reality is that right now we still don't have all the answers when it comes to understanding and treating abnormal behavior.
In order to understand abnormal psychology, it is essential to first understand what we mean by the term "abnormal"? On the surface, the meaning seems obvious: something that is outside of the norm. But are we talking about the norms of a particular group, gender or age? Many human behaviors can follow what is known as the normal curve. Looking at this bell-shaped curve, the majority of individuals are clustered around the highest point of the curve, which is known as the average. People who fall very far at either end of the normal curve might be considered "abnormal."
It is important to note that the distinctions of normal and abnormal are not synonymous with good or bad. Consider a characteristic such as intelligence. A person who falls at the very upper end of the curve would fit under our definition of abnormal; this person would also be considered a genius. Obviously, this is an instance where falling outside of the norms is actually a good thing.
When you think about abnormal psychology, rather than focus on the distinction between what is normal and what is abnormal, focus instead on the level of distress or disruption that a troubling behavior might cause. If a behavior is causing problems in a person's life or is disruptive to other people, then this would be an "abnormal" behavior that may require some type of mental health intervention.
Perspectives in Abnormal Psychology
There are a number of different perspectives used in abnormal psychology. While some psychologists or psychiatrists may focus on a single perspectives, many mental health professionals us elements from multiple areas in order to better understand and treat psychological disorders.
Perspectives on Aetiology and Treatment
If one seeks to understand abnormal behavior, it is useful to start with a definition of what is "abnormal". As the text notes, criteria have changed over time--incidents like the Salem Witch Trials in the 1700's reflected a view that interpreted pathology in terms of demonic possession. (It now appears the real cause was poisoning by a fungus from spoiled grain, which led to a panic by the community in response to strange behavior by those poisoned.)
Today, diagnostic criteria try to consider behavior in terms of the person's ability to function and reported quality of life (i.e., maladaptiveness and suffering). The use of diagnostic categories, based primarily on symptoms, is an attempt to group together similar cases, in much the way that early botanists categorized similar plants. (In both cases, the assumption is that categorizing is the first step towards a deeper understanding.) The most widely used systems for diagnostic classification are Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV (DSM_IV) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD).
Diagnosis, of course, is normally seen as the first step to understanding the cause (aetiology) of the abnormal behavior, and therefore to identifying an appropriate treatment. While this process has proven very successful in dealing with communicable diseases like influenza and measles, it has had less overall success in dealing with abnormal behavior. In part, this reflects theoretical disagreements among the five approaches about aetiology, and therefore about how best to treat a problem.
A second factor which hampers the effectiveness of diagnosis based on symptoms is that similar behaviors may result from different causes. (For example, an elderly person showing delusions may be suffering from paranoia, or may simply have an undiagnosed hearing impairment which leads them to misinterpret the words and actions of others!)
Even the process by which health practitioners (and society) diagnose problems and disorders can pose problems--for example, you are less likely to be accurately diagnosed if the practitioner is from a different cultural or ethnic background than your own. In fairness, the groups that publish the most widely used standards for diagnosis, the American Psychiatric Association (DSM-IV) and the World Health Organization (ICD-9), are aware of the difficulties, and are striving to improve the accuracy and reliability of diagnosis, but the present system is far from perfect.
It is not possible here to discuss all details of diagnosis and treatment, or to discuss the nature of every disorder. (The text provides more information on these topics, of course.) However, the following resources may be useful if you are seeking additional information, either about causes and treatment of abnormal behavior in general, or how specific approaches deal with particular forms of abnormal behavior.
Labels:
Common Mental Disorder
Definiton of Mental Retardation,Description, and Treatment
Mental retardation: A term used when a person has certain limitations in mental functioning and in skills such as communicating, taking care of him or herself, and social skills. These limitations will cause a child to learn and develop more slowly than a typical child.
Children with mental retardation may take longer to learn to speak, walk, and take care of their personal needs such as dressing or eating. They are likely to have trouble learning in school. They will learn, but it will take them longer. There may be some things they cannot learn. As many as 3 out of every 100 people have mental retardation. In fact, 1 out of every 10 children who need special education has some form of mental retardation.
There are many causes of mental retardation. The most common causes are:
Genetic conditions -- Abnormalities of chromosomes and genes. Examples of genetic conditions are Down syndrome (trisomy 21), fragile X syndrome, and phenylketonuria (PKU).
Problems during pregnancy -- When the baby does not develop normally inside the mother. For example, a woman who drinks alcohol or gets an infection like rubella during pregnancy may have a baby with mental retardation.
Perinatal problems -- Problems during labor and birth, such as not getting enough oxygen.
Health problems -- Diseases like whooping cough, the measles, or meningitis. Mental retardation can also be caused by extreme malnutrition or being exposed to poisons like lead or mercury.
The diagnosis of mental retardation is made by looking at two main things. These are (1) the ability of a person's brain to learn, think, solve problems, and make sense of the world (intellectual functioning or IQ); and (2) whether the person has the skills he or she needs to live independently (called adaptive behavior, or adaptive functioning).
Description
Mental retardation occurs in 2.5-3% of the general population. About 6-7.5 million mentally retarded individuals live in the United States alone. Mental retardation begins in childhood or adolescence before the age of 18. In most cases, it persists throughout adulthood.
A diagnosis of mental retardation is made if an individual has an intellectual functioning level well below average and significant limitations in two or more adaptive skill areas. Intellectual functioning level is defined by standardized tests that measure the ability to reason in terms of mental age (intelligence quotient or IQ).
Mental retardation is defined as IQ score below 70-75. Adaptive skills are the skills needed for daily life. Such skills include the ability to produce and understand language (communication); home-living skills; use of community resources; health, safety, leisure, self-care, and social skills; self-direction; functional academic skills (reading, writing, and arithmetic); and work skills.
In general, mentally retarded children reach developmental milestones such as walking and talking much later than the general population. Symptoms of mental retardation may appear at birth or later in childhood.
Time of onset depends on the suspected cause of the disability. Some cases of mild mental retardation are not diagnosed before the child enters preschool. These children typically have difficulties with social, communication, and functional academic skills.
Children who have a neurological disorder or illness such as encephalitis or meningitis may suddenly show signs of cognitive impairment and adaptive difficulties.
Mental retardation varies in severity. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) is the diagnostic standard for mental healthcare professionals in the United States.
The DSM-IV classifies four different degrees of mental retardation: mild, moderate, severe, and profound. These categories are based on the functioning level of the individual.
Mild mental retardation
Approximately 85% of the mentally retarded population is in the mildly retarded category. Their IQ score ranges from 50-75, and they can often acquire academic skills up to the 6th grade level. They can become fairly self-sufficient and in some cases live independently, with community and social support.
Moderate mental retardation
About 10% of the mentally retarded population is considered moderately retarded. Moderately retarded individuals have IQ scores ranging from 35-55. They can carry out work and self-care tasks with moderate supervision. They typically acquire communication skills in childhood and are able to live and function successfully within the community in a supervised environment such as a group home.
Severe mental retardation
About 3-4% of the mentally retarded population is severely retarded. Severely retarded individuals have IQ scores of 20-40. They may master very basic self-care skills and some communication skills. Many severely retarded individuals are able to live in a group home.
Profound mental retardation
Only 1-2% of the mentally retarded population is classified as profoundly retarded. Profoundly retarded individuals have IQ scores under 20-25. They may be able to develop basic self-care and communication skills with appropriate support and training. Their retardation is often caused by an accompanying neurological disorder. The profoundly retarded need a high level of structure and supervision.
The American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR) has developed another widely accepted diagnostic classification system for mental retardation. The AAMR classification system focuses on the capabilities of the retarded individual rather than on the limitations.
The categories describe the level of support required. They are: intermittent support, limited support, extensive support, and pervasive support. To some extent, the AAMR classification mirrors the DSM-IV classification. Intermittent support, for example, is support needed only occasionally, perhaps during times of stress or crisis.
It is the type of support typically required for most mildly retarded individuals. At the other end of the spectrum, pervasive support, or life-long, daily support for most adaptive areas, would be required for profoundly retarded individuals.
Causes and symptoms
Low IQ scores and limitations in adaptive skills are the hallmarks of mental retardation. Aggression, self-injury, and mood disorders are sometimes associated with the disability. The severity of the symptoms and the age at which they first appear depend on the cause.
Children who are mentally retarded reach developmental milestones significantly later than expected, if at all. If retardation is caused by chromosomal or other genetic disorders, it is often apparent from infancy.
If retardation is caused by childhood illnesses or injuries, learning and adaptive skills that were once easy may suddenly become difficult or impossible to master.
In about 35% of cases, the cause of mental retardation cannot be found. Biological and environmental factors that can cause mental retardation include:
Intellectual functioning, or IQ, is usually measured by an IQ test. The average IQ score is, by definition, 100. People scoring below 70 to 75 on the IQ test are considered to have mental retardation. To measure adaptive behavior, professionals look at what a child can do in comparison to other children of his or her age.
Certain skills are important to adaptive behavior. These are daily living skills (such as getting dressed, going to the bathroom, and feeding one's self), communication skills (such as understanding what is said and being able to answer) and social skills (interacting with peers, family members, adults, and others).
Treatment
Federal legislation entitles mentally retarded children to free testing and appropriate, individualized education and skills training within the school system from ages three to 21. For children under the age of three, many states have established early intervention programs that assess, recommend, and begin treatment programs.
Many day schools are available to help train retarded children in basic skills such as bathing and feeding themselves. Extracurricular activities and social programs are also important in helping retarded children and adolescents gain self-esteem.
Training in independent living and job skills is often begun in early adulthood. The level of training depends on the degree of retardation. Mildly retarded individuals can often acquire the skills needed to live independently and hold an outside job. Moderate to profoundly retarded individuals usually require supervised community living.
Family therapy can help relatives of the mentally retarded develop coping skills. It can also help parents deal with feelings of guilt or anger. A supportive, warm home environment is essential to help the mentally retarded reach their full potential. However, as of 2004, there is no cure for mental retardation.
A promising but controversial treatment for mental retardation involves stem cell research. In the early 2000s scientists are exploring the potential of adult stem cells in treating mental retardation. They have transplanted bone marrow cells into living embryos in the uteri of animals to approach congenital diseases, birth defects, and mental retardation.
Stem cells are primitive cells that are capable of forming diverse types of tissue. Because of this remarkable quality, human stem cells hold huge promise for the development of therapies to regenerate damaged organs and heal people who are suffering from terrible diseases.
Embryonic stem cells are derived from human embryos.
Their use is controversial because such stem cells cannot be used in research without destroying the living embryo. Other sources of stem cells are available, however, and can be harvested from umbilical cord blood as well as from fat, bone marrow, and other adult tissue without harm to the donor. An enormous amount of research involving adult stem cells is going on as of 2004 in laboratories in the United States.
Prognosis
Individuals with mild to moderate mental retardation are frequently able to achieve some self-sufficiency and to lead happy and fulfilling lives. To reach these goals, they need appropriate and consistent educational, community, social, family, and vocational supports. The outlook is less promising for those with severe to profound retardation.
Studies have shown that these individuals have a shortened life expectancy. The diseases that are usually associated with severe retardation may cause the shorter life span. People with Down syndrome develop in later life the brain changes that characterize Alzheimer's disease and may develop the clinical symptoms of this disease as well.
Prevention
Immunization against diseases such as measles and Hib prevents many of the illnesses that can cause mental retardation. In addition, all children should undergo routine developmental screening as part of their pediatric care. Screening is particularly critical for those children who may be neglected or undernourished or may live in disease-producing conditions.
Newborn screening and immediate treatment for PKU and hyperthyroidism can usually catch these disorders early enough to prevent retardation.
Good prenatal care can also help prevent retardation. Pregnant women should be educated about the risks of drinking and the need to maintain good nutrition during pregnancy. Tests such as amniocentesis and ultrasonography can determine whether a fetus is developing normally in the womb.
Children with mental retardation may take longer to learn to speak, walk, and take care of their personal needs such as dressing or eating. They are likely to have trouble learning in school. They will learn, but it will take them longer. There may be some things they cannot learn. As many as 3 out of every 100 people have mental retardation. In fact, 1 out of every 10 children who need special education has some form of mental retardation.
There are many causes of mental retardation. The most common causes are:
Genetic conditions -- Abnormalities of chromosomes and genes. Examples of genetic conditions are Down syndrome (trisomy 21), fragile X syndrome, and phenylketonuria (PKU).
Problems during pregnancy -- When the baby does not develop normally inside the mother. For example, a woman who drinks alcohol or gets an infection like rubella during pregnancy may have a baby with mental retardation.
Perinatal problems -- Problems during labor and birth, such as not getting enough oxygen.
Health problems -- Diseases like whooping cough, the measles, or meningitis. Mental retardation can also be caused by extreme malnutrition or being exposed to poisons like lead or mercury.
The diagnosis of mental retardation is made by looking at two main things. These are (1) the ability of a person's brain to learn, think, solve problems, and make sense of the world (intellectual functioning or IQ); and (2) whether the person has the skills he or she needs to live independently (called adaptive behavior, or adaptive functioning).
Description
Mental retardation occurs in 2.5-3% of the general population. About 6-7.5 million mentally retarded individuals live in the United States alone. Mental retardation begins in childhood or adolescence before the age of 18. In most cases, it persists throughout adulthood.
A diagnosis of mental retardation is made if an individual has an intellectual functioning level well below average and significant limitations in two or more adaptive skill areas. Intellectual functioning level is defined by standardized tests that measure the ability to reason in terms of mental age (intelligence quotient or IQ).
Mental retardation is defined as IQ score below 70-75. Adaptive skills are the skills needed for daily life. Such skills include the ability to produce and understand language (communication); home-living skills; use of community resources; health, safety, leisure, self-care, and social skills; self-direction; functional academic skills (reading, writing, and arithmetic); and work skills.
In general, mentally retarded children reach developmental milestones such as walking and talking much later than the general population. Symptoms of mental retardation may appear at birth or later in childhood.
Time of onset depends on the suspected cause of the disability. Some cases of mild mental retardation are not diagnosed before the child enters preschool. These children typically have difficulties with social, communication, and functional academic skills.
Children who have a neurological disorder or illness such as encephalitis or meningitis may suddenly show signs of cognitive impairment and adaptive difficulties.
Mental retardation varies in severity. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) is the diagnostic standard for mental healthcare professionals in the United States.
The DSM-IV classifies four different degrees of mental retardation: mild, moderate, severe, and profound. These categories are based on the functioning level of the individual.
Mild mental retardation
Approximately 85% of the mentally retarded population is in the mildly retarded category. Their IQ score ranges from 50-75, and they can often acquire academic skills up to the 6th grade level. They can become fairly self-sufficient and in some cases live independently, with community and social support.
Moderate mental retardation
About 10% of the mentally retarded population is considered moderately retarded. Moderately retarded individuals have IQ scores ranging from 35-55. They can carry out work and self-care tasks with moderate supervision. They typically acquire communication skills in childhood and are able to live and function successfully within the community in a supervised environment such as a group home.
Severe mental retardation
About 3-4% of the mentally retarded population is severely retarded. Severely retarded individuals have IQ scores of 20-40. They may master very basic self-care skills and some communication skills. Many severely retarded individuals are able to live in a group home.
Profound mental retardation
Only 1-2% of the mentally retarded population is classified as profoundly retarded. Profoundly retarded individuals have IQ scores under 20-25. They may be able to develop basic self-care and communication skills with appropriate support and training. Their retardation is often caused by an accompanying neurological disorder. The profoundly retarded need a high level of structure and supervision.
The American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR) has developed another widely accepted diagnostic classification system for mental retardation. The AAMR classification system focuses on the capabilities of the retarded individual rather than on the limitations.
The categories describe the level of support required. They are: intermittent support, limited support, extensive support, and pervasive support. To some extent, the AAMR classification mirrors the DSM-IV classification. Intermittent support, for example, is support needed only occasionally, perhaps during times of stress or crisis.
It is the type of support typically required for most mildly retarded individuals. At the other end of the spectrum, pervasive support, or life-long, daily support for most adaptive areas, would be required for profoundly retarded individuals.
Causes and symptoms
Low IQ scores and limitations in adaptive skills are the hallmarks of mental retardation. Aggression, self-injury, and mood disorders are sometimes associated with the disability. The severity of the symptoms and the age at which they first appear depend on the cause.
Children who are mentally retarded reach developmental milestones significantly later than expected, if at all. If retardation is caused by chromosomal or other genetic disorders, it is often apparent from infancy.
If retardation is caused by childhood illnesses or injuries, learning and adaptive skills that were once easy may suddenly become difficult or impossible to master.
In about 35% of cases, the cause of mental retardation cannot be found. Biological and environmental factors that can cause mental retardation include:
Intellectual functioning, or IQ, is usually measured by an IQ test. The average IQ score is, by definition, 100. People scoring below 70 to 75 on the IQ test are considered to have mental retardation. To measure adaptive behavior, professionals look at what a child can do in comparison to other children of his or her age.
Certain skills are important to adaptive behavior. These are daily living skills (such as getting dressed, going to the bathroom, and feeding one's self), communication skills (such as understanding what is said and being able to answer) and social skills (interacting with peers, family members, adults, and others).
Treatment
Federal legislation entitles mentally retarded children to free testing and appropriate, individualized education and skills training within the school system from ages three to 21. For children under the age of three, many states have established early intervention programs that assess, recommend, and begin treatment programs.
Many day schools are available to help train retarded children in basic skills such as bathing and feeding themselves. Extracurricular activities and social programs are also important in helping retarded children and adolescents gain self-esteem.
Training in independent living and job skills is often begun in early adulthood. The level of training depends on the degree of retardation. Mildly retarded individuals can often acquire the skills needed to live independently and hold an outside job. Moderate to profoundly retarded individuals usually require supervised community living.
Family therapy can help relatives of the mentally retarded develop coping skills. It can also help parents deal with feelings of guilt or anger. A supportive, warm home environment is essential to help the mentally retarded reach their full potential. However, as of 2004, there is no cure for mental retardation.
A promising but controversial treatment for mental retardation involves stem cell research. In the early 2000s scientists are exploring the potential of adult stem cells in treating mental retardation. They have transplanted bone marrow cells into living embryos in the uteri of animals to approach congenital diseases, birth defects, and mental retardation.
Stem cells are primitive cells that are capable of forming diverse types of tissue. Because of this remarkable quality, human stem cells hold huge promise for the development of therapies to regenerate damaged organs and heal people who are suffering from terrible diseases.
Embryonic stem cells are derived from human embryos.
Their use is controversial because such stem cells cannot be used in research without destroying the living embryo. Other sources of stem cells are available, however, and can be harvested from umbilical cord blood as well as from fat, bone marrow, and other adult tissue without harm to the donor. An enormous amount of research involving adult stem cells is going on as of 2004 in laboratories in the United States.
Prognosis
Individuals with mild to moderate mental retardation are frequently able to achieve some self-sufficiency and to lead happy and fulfilling lives. To reach these goals, they need appropriate and consistent educational, community, social, family, and vocational supports. The outlook is less promising for those with severe to profound retardation.
Studies have shown that these individuals have a shortened life expectancy. The diseases that are usually associated with severe retardation may cause the shorter life span. People with Down syndrome develop in later life the brain changes that characterize Alzheimer's disease and may develop the clinical symptoms of this disease as well.
Prevention
Immunization against diseases such as measles and Hib prevents many of the illnesses that can cause mental retardation. In addition, all children should undergo routine developmental screening as part of their pediatric care. Screening is particularly critical for those children who may be neglected or undernourished or may live in disease-producing conditions.
Newborn screening and immediate treatment for PKU and hyperthyroidism can usually catch these disorders early enough to prevent retardation.
Good prenatal care can also help prevent retardation. Pregnant women should be educated about the risks of drinking and the need to maintain good nutrition during pregnancy. Tests such as amniocentesis and ultrasonography can determine whether a fetus is developing normally in the womb.
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Common Mental Disorder
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