Psychology, Taken from the Greek word “psyche” and “logos” literally means “soul or mind” and “study”. This original interpretation of term covering to concept- mind substance and matter substance,recent philosophical and scientific trends however, deal with this ambiguity by stressing conceptualized events as perception, learning and problem solving “without respect to the verity of possible metaphysical interpretation of what sort of substance participates in this events.
Psychology is a scientific study of a behavior. It attempts to explain behavior in two ways, the developmental approach accounting for behavior on the basis of what has gone before and the interactive approach, the basis of what is presently happening in the matter of stimuli, bodily condition and conflicting tendencies.
Like other behavioral sciences, its study overlaps neighboring science studies like biology, the social sciences and the physical sciences. Because the aim of a science is to discover new and useful information, the fact of psychology is not complete. It must rely on the data gathered from the recent researches which are amenable to experimental verification. Its makes use of precise and accurately measuring devices and methods like observation, case histories, intervis, biographics reports and data statistical method and the like.
Its scientific foundation dates back to Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) called the father of modern Psychology who opened the the first psychological laboratory in 1879 in the University of Leipzig Germany. The roots contemporary psychology can be traced to several school of thought like Structuralism, Functionalism, Gestalt, Purposivism, Individualism, Behavioralism and Psychoanalysis.
Showing posts with label General Psychology. Show all posts
Showing posts with label General Psychology. Show all posts
Principles of Growth and Development
Hereditary information regarding the process by which living organism transmits characteristic or traits form parents to offsprings was stimulated by the experiments of Gregor Mendel, an Australian botanist and Augustinian monk. On the basis of his experiments, the so-called Mendellian Laws of Hereditary were formulated – like the Laws of Dominance, Law of Segregation and Law of Unit characters
Chromosomes and the genes carried by them transmit characteristic like intelligence, physical height ad emotionality from parents to offspring. Both hereditary and environment jointly determine the development of the behavior in a individual.
When the child is conceived, his hereditary becomes fixed. That means that the hereditary components in the form of traits inherited from both parents are already determined and whatever alterations may appear are largely the result of environment conditions
The period of prenatal development represents the period of the greatest growth in the whole life of the individual. For only a brief period of nine months, he grows to length approximately 20 inches more or less. The mother must extra careful especially the first three months of pregnancy for it is during these period that many vital parts of the body like the brain, the nervous system and the visceral organs are being formed.
The pattern of motor development are similar for all human species though not identical in time and degree. The first kind of language that the child learn is receptive, before he able to express sound as language and to comprehend the meaning of words, Social response and development determined largely through interactions of the individual with his environment. As a child matures, his social contact becomes increasingly wider and wider. The factor that the affect the intellectual development, physical condition, sex and ones emotional state. Its not easy to designate accurately a childs emotion in early life because the expression of emotion is a subject experience and the most, we can only conclude what the child experiences at the time
Growth and development is one of the important subject of psychology. It is essential for every teacher and parents know the fundamentals of growth and development. Good, effective teaching and guidance depend on the study of growth and development. Effective learning takes place when learning situations are arranged in accordance with the growth and development.
At birth, the child is helpless. Gradually he develops and becomes independent. A teacher before preparing the curriculum must have a basis idea of the anticipated changes of the behavior undergoing at various stages.
Growth
Growth means an increase in size, height, weight, length, etc. which can be measured.
Development
Development implies changes in shape, form or structure resulting in improved working. It implies qualitative changes.
The principles of growth and development are described below.
(1) Development follows a pattern:
Development occurs in orderly manner and follows a certain sequence. For example, the human baby can stand before he walks and can draw a circle before he can draw a square. He babbles before he talks, he is dependent on others before he becomes self-dependent.
(2) Development proceeds from general to specific responses:
It moves from a generalized to localized behavior. The newborn infant moves its whole body at one time instead of moving only one part of it. It makes random kicking with its legs before it can coordinate the leg muscles well enough to crawl or to walk.
(3) Development is a continuous process:
Development does not occur in spurts. Growth continues from the moments of conception until the individual reaches maturity. It takes place at slow regular pace rather than by ‘leaps and bounds’.
Although development is a continuous process, yet the tempo of growth is not even during infancy and early years, growth moves swiftly. Later on, it slackens.
(4) Different aspects of growth develop at different rates
Neither all parts of the body grow at the same rate nor do all aspects of mental growth proceed equally. They reach maturity at different times.
(5) Most traits are correlated in development:
Generally, it is seen that the child whose intellectual development is above average is so in health size, sociability and special aptitudes.
(6) Growth is complex:
All of its aspects are closely interrelated. The child’s mental development is intimately related to his physical growth and its needs.
(7) Growth is a product of the interaction of the organism and environment:
Among the environmental factors one can mention nutrition, climate the conditions in the home, the type of social organization in which individual moves and lives.
(8) There are wide individual differences in growth:
Individual differences in growth are caused by differences in heredity and environment.
(9) Growth is both quantitative and qualitative:
These two aspects are inseparable. The child not only grows in ‘size’; he grows up or matures in structure and function too.
(10) Development is predictable:
It is possible for us to predict at an early age the range within which the mature development of the child is likely to fall. But mental development cannot be predicted with the same degree of accuracy.
Educational Significance
Education is not only a process and a product of growing; it means growing. Teachers and parents must know what children are capable of, what children are capable of, and what potentialities they possess. By knowing this, they can provide congenial environment, which are conducive to the maximum growth of children. Besides the teacher and parents must be helpful, sympathetic and encouraging to the students.
Bearing in mind the individual variations in growth, the school programmes must be adjusted accordingly. Good physical growth, through the provision of play, games and sports is conducive to effective intellectual development. On the other hand, malnutrition retards development. Therefore, teachers and parents help in cultivating among pupils habits of balanced eating. Because of ‘individual differences’ diversified development of specific talents, abilities and interests and varied co-curricular activities must be introduced in school curriculum.
Moreover, teachers and parents should not demand of pupils what is beyond their stage of growth.
Chromosomes and the genes carried by them transmit characteristic like intelligence, physical height ad emotionality from parents to offspring. Both hereditary and environment jointly determine the development of the behavior in a individual.
When the child is conceived, his hereditary becomes fixed. That means that the hereditary components in the form of traits inherited from both parents are already determined and whatever alterations may appear are largely the result of environment conditions
The period of prenatal development represents the period of the greatest growth in the whole life of the individual. For only a brief period of nine months, he grows to length approximately 20 inches more or less. The mother must extra careful especially the first three months of pregnancy for it is during these period that many vital parts of the body like the brain, the nervous system and the visceral organs are being formed.
The pattern of motor development are similar for all human species though not identical in time and degree. The first kind of language that the child learn is receptive, before he able to express sound as language and to comprehend the meaning of words, Social response and development determined largely through interactions of the individual with his environment. As a child matures, his social contact becomes increasingly wider and wider. The factor that the affect the intellectual development, physical condition, sex and ones emotional state. Its not easy to designate accurately a childs emotion in early life because the expression of emotion is a subject experience and the most, we can only conclude what the child experiences at the time
Growth and development is one of the important subject of psychology. It is essential for every teacher and parents know the fundamentals of growth and development. Good, effective teaching and guidance depend on the study of growth and development. Effective learning takes place when learning situations are arranged in accordance with the growth and development.
At birth, the child is helpless. Gradually he develops and becomes independent. A teacher before preparing the curriculum must have a basis idea of the anticipated changes of the behavior undergoing at various stages.
Growth
Growth means an increase in size, height, weight, length, etc. which can be measured.
Development
Development implies changes in shape, form or structure resulting in improved working. It implies qualitative changes.
The principles of growth and development are described below.
(1) Development follows a pattern:
Development occurs in orderly manner and follows a certain sequence. For example, the human baby can stand before he walks and can draw a circle before he can draw a square. He babbles before he talks, he is dependent on others before he becomes self-dependent.
(2) Development proceeds from general to specific responses:
It moves from a generalized to localized behavior. The newborn infant moves its whole body at one time instead of moving only one part of it. It makes random kicking with its legs before it can coordinate the leg muscles well enough to crawl or to walk.
(3) Development is a continuous process:
Development does not occur in spurts. Growth continues from the moments of conception until the individual reaches maturity. It takes place at slow regular pace rather than by ‘leaps and bounds’.
Although development is a continuous process, yet the tempo of growth is not even during infancy and early years, growth moves swiftly. Later on, it slackens.
(4) Different aspects of growth develop at different rates
Neither all parts of the body grow at the same rate nor do all aspects of mental growth proceed equally. They reach maturity at different times.
(5) Most traits are correlated in development:
Generally, it is seen that the child whose intellectual development is above average is so in health size, sociability and special aptitudes.
(6) Growth is complex:
All of its aspects are closely interrelated. The child’s mental development is intimately related to his physical growth and its needs.
(7) Growth is a product of the interaction of the organism and environment:
Among the environmental factors one can mention nutrition, climate the conditions in the home, the type of social organization in which individual moves and lives.
(8) There are wide individual differences in growth:
Individual differences in growth are caused by differences in heredity and environment.
(9) Growth is both quantitative and qualitative:
These two aspects are inseparable. The child not only grows in ‘size’; he grows up or matures in structure and function too.
(10) Development is predictable:
It is possible for us to predict at an early age the range within which the mature development of the child is likely to fall. But mental development cannot be predicted with the same degree of accuracy.
Educational Significance
Education is not only a process and a product of growing; it means growing. Teachers and parents must know what children are capable of, what children are capable of, and what potentialities they possess. By knowing this, they can provide congenial environment, which are conducive to the maximum growth of children. Besides the teacher and parents must be helpful, sympathetic and encouraging to the students.
Bearing in mind the individual variations in growth, the school programmes must be adjusted accordingly. Good physical growth, through the provision of play, games and sports is conducive to effective intellectual development. On the other hand, malnutrition retards development. Therefore, teachers and parents help in cultivating among pupils habits of balanced eating. Because of ‘individual differences’ diversified development of specific talents, abilities and interests and varied co-curricular activities must be introduced in school curriculum.
Moreover, teachers and parents should not demand of pupils what is beyond their stage of growth.
Labels:
General Psychology
The Psychological Basis of Behavior
A study of the physiology of the human body will pave the way toward an understanding of the complex human behavior. This approach in understanding behavior involves the study of the nervous system principally, the master tissue that integrates the mechanismof the human body form the receptor, afferent neuron, adjustor or associative neurons, efferent neurons and effectors.
The major components of the nervous system is the brain which is the center of intelligence, memory and personality, The spinal cord, the peripheral nervous system and the other nerve structures link the brain with the outside world and the various parts of the body.
A special branch of this system called the autonomic nervous system regulates the internal activities of the body, like the flow of blood, the movements of the digestive tract, the secretion of the digestive and endocrine
glands and the other internal unconscious automatics activities of the body
The cranial and spinal nerves from the peripheral nervous system and the action of the afferent neurons form this region is to conduct the nerve implulses(stimulation) to and from the cental axis.
Physiological reaction therefore includes the following nervous integration: 1. Reception of stimulation form exteroceptors, interoceptors, and proprioceptors; 2. The operation centers nd tracts in the coordination of nerve impulses; 3. The function of muscles and glands.
The major components of the nervous system is the brain which is the center of intelligence, memory and personality, The spinal cord, the peripheral nervous system and the other nerve structures link the brain with the outside world and the various parts of the body.
A special branch of this system called the autonomic nervous system regulates the internal activities of the body, like the flow of blood, the movements of the digestive tract, the secretion of the digestive and endocrine
glands and the other internal unconscious automatics activities of the body
The cranial and spinal nerves from the peripheral nervous system and the action of the afferent neurons form this region is to conduct the nerve implulses(stimulation) to and from the cental axis.
Physiological reaction therefore includes the following nervous integration: 1. Reception of stimulation form exteroceptors, interoceptors, and proprioceptors; 2. The operation centers nd tracts in the coordination of nerve impulses; 3. The function of muscles and glands.
Labels:
General Psychology
Motivated and Emotional Behavior
Emotions are motive forces that are closely related to behavior. Various approaches have been made to describe the role of the emotion in human affair, to discover theories that can adequately explain this behavior and categorize them into precise pigeon-hole types all of which given credence to the complexity of this kind of behavior.
The proper management of ones emotion consist of exercising the right amount of control and expression to achieve emotional health. The development of the emotion is largely dependent and influenced by two factors: maturation, during yhe early years and by learning, and evinced by cultural differences in the manner and occasion of emotional expression.
Affective experiences vary from mild to intense, pleasant and unpleasant. The gradations of emotion is illustrated by the attitude characterized by excessive emotion and neurotic responses,i.e.,an inferiority complex which is excessive self-depreciation acquired through deep religious beliefs or any similar cause.
Affective experiences vary from mild to intense, pleasant and unpleasant. The gradations of emotion is illustrated by the following:
1. Annoyance, anger, rage
2. Pleasure, happiness, joy, ecstacy
3. Surprise, amazement, astonishment
4. apprehension, fear, panic, terror
5. Gloominess, dejection, sorrow, grief
6. Dislike, digust, loathing
The proper management of ones emotion consist of exercising the right amount of control and expression to achieve emotional health. The development of the emotion is largely dependent and influenced by two factors: maturation, during yhe early years and by learning, and evinced by cultural differences in the manner and occasion of emotional expression.
Affective experiences vary from mild to intense, pleasant and unpleasant. The gradations of emotion is illustrated by the attitude characterized by excessive emotion and neurotic responses,i.e.,an inferiority complex which is excessive self-depreciation acquired through deep religious beliefs or any similar cause.
Affective experiences vary from mild to intense, pleasant and unpleasant. The gradations of emotion is illustrated by the following:
1. Annoyance, anger, rage
2. Pleasure, happiness, joy, ecstacy
3. Surprise, amazement, astonishment
4. apprehension, fear, panic, terror
5. Gloominess, dejection, sorrow, grief
6. Dislike, digust, loathing
Labels:
General Psychology
Sensation and Perception of Psychology
Behavior is the result of the integration of information acquired from the environment, its analysis and the interpretation and the corresponding reaction or response made. We have seen how the different body receptors react to specific kind of energy (the stimulus) generating nerve impulses. We have dealt with the dimension of each sensory experiences -visual, auditory, gustatory olfactory, tactual, kinesthetic, and equilabratory.
Evidence propounded by the different theories serve as compromise explanation to substantiate all facts or speculations about each sensory process input (perception) including many perceptual experiences dependent on one or several senses- and including ESP- a subject thathas aroused many a “tempest in a teapot” because of the speculative and unsettled issues involved in its study.
Evidence propounded by the different theories serve as compromise explanation to substantiate all facts or speculations about each sensory process input (perception) including many perceptual experiences dependent on one or several senses- and including ESP- a subject thathas aroused many a “tempest in a teapot” because of the speculative and unsettled issues involved in its study.
Labels:
General Psychology
Learning and Human Abilities
One of the most fundamental of human activities is learning. It includes the development and modification of tendencies governing psychological functions. The scientific story of learning involves a wide scopes and encompasses varied view points. It can be studied from the developmental, interactive, associative and cognitive levels
Retention of what is learned is governed by varied factors contributing to efficiency. Among these factor include motivation, duration of practice, transfer of learning, knowledge of results, meaningfulness of materials, the use of devices, sense modalities, degrees of overlearning and active participation in the learning task.
Remembering and forgetting are form of behavior explained from different standpoints bu such theories as Passive Decay Thru Disuse, Systematic Distortion of Memory Traces, Interference Effect and Motivated Forgetting.
Thinking which utilizes symbolic representations of thing or events falls into two categories: 1) Associative (Undirected) thinking; and 2) Directed Thinking and includes such activities as autistic thinking, daydreaming, nightdreaming, imagination, reveries, problem-solving, reasoning, creativity and brainstorming.
Retention of what is learned is governed by varied factors contributing to efficiency. Among these factor include motivation, duration of practice, transfer of learning, knowledge of results, meaningfulness of materials, the use of devices, sense modalities, degrees of overlearning and active participation in the learning task.
Remembering and forgetting are form of behavior explained from different standpoints bu such theories as Passive Decay Thru Disuse, Systematic Distortion of Memory Traces, Interference Effect and Motivated Forgetting.
Thinking which utilizes symbolic representations of thing or events falls into two categories: 1) Associative (Undirected) thinking; and 2) Directed Thinking and includes such activities as autistic thinking, daydreaming, nightdreaming, imagination, reveries, problem-solving, reasoning, creativity and brainstorming.
Labels:
General Psychology
Individual Differences and Intelligence
That the individuals vary in both biological and psychological trait can be attributed to many influences – biological, environmental, cultural, social and interrelation of all these factors.
The recognition that individual differ from each other that are unique has challenged many educators in their task of curriculum-making and in the development of techniques that make prediction necessary – hence, the development of test ( intelligence, aptitude, achievement, interest, personality) and measure of central tendencies, ( mean, medium, mode) and the measures of variation ( range, standard deviation and mean deviation).
Attempt to meet individual differences have devised; among them: homogeneous grouping, supervised study, special school, teaching techniques, and enrichment.
Intelligence is one area where individuals manifest differences. Alfred Binet, who advised the first intelligence test came up with a method or formula for arriving at the IQ (INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT), one method of measuring intelligence. The other method are through the MA (mental age) and the Percentile Rank.
Studied have tried to trace intelligence to various sources. Hereditary, Environment, Sex, Social condition, race and geographical location have offered factual basis for such intellectual differences.
The normal curve which mathematical concept marking the limit of distribution has signified information regarding the distribution of traits along a continuum. The extremes which are apparently few (making up about 1/3 of the population), are represented by the mentally retarded (moron, imbecile, idiots in descending order) and the mentally superior at the other end.
The mentally retarded are the distinguished from the mentally defective in that first are such from birth while the second are such due to environmental condition (illness, injury, physical defect).
While the mentally retarded have aroused a lot of attention, the mentally gifted, on the consumption that they can take care of themselves and are the favored few, have apparently merited less attention comparatively.
Studies of the gifted have belief the popular notion that the gifted are qeer, unadjusted, emotionally unstable and physical weaklings. Like normal population, they have they share of failures, in the sense that they have not fully realized their potentialities – although their IQ’s have remained high.
The recognition that individual differ from each other that are unique has challenged many educators in their task of curriculum-making and in the development of techniques that make prediction necessary – hence, the development of test ( intelligence, aptitude, achievement, interest, personality) and measure of central tendencies, ( mean, medium, mode) and the measures of variation ( range, standard deviation and mean deviation).
Attempt to meet individual differences have devised; among them: homogeneous grouping, supervised study, special school, teaching techniques, and enrichment.
Intelligence is one area where individuals manifest differences. Alfred Binet, who advised the first intelligence test came up with a method or formula for arriving at the IQ (INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT), one method of measuring intelligence. The other method are through the MA (mental age) and the Percentile Rank.
Studied have tried to trace intelligence to various sources. Hereditary, Environment, Sex, Social condition, race and geographical location have offered factual basis for such intellectual differences.
The normal curve which mathematical concept marking the limit of distribution has signified information regarding the distribution of traits along a continuum. The extremes which are apparently few (making up about 1/3 of the population), are represented by the mentally retarded (moron, imbecile, idiots in descending order) and the mentally superior at the other end.
The mentally retarded are the distinguished from the mentally defective in that first are such from birth while the second are such due to environmental condition (illness, injury, physical defect).
While the mentally retarded have aroused a lot of attention, the mentally gifted, on the consumption that they can take care of themselves and are the favored few, have apparently merited less attention comparatively.
Studies of the gifted have belief the popular notion that the gifted are qeer, unadjusted, emotionally unstable and physical weaklings. Like normal population, they have they share of failures, in the sense that they have not fully realized their potentialities – although their IQ’s have remained high.
Labels:
General Psychology
Personality Development and Mental Health
Personality has been aquated with stable psychological structures like physical, intellectual, social, moral, and spiritual ones, which dispose the individual to act the way he does.
Personality structure and how its work cannot be directly observed but merely inferred from behavior.
Any description of personality involved theoretical statement about its unit. Personality theories come under various classification depending upon the author’s point of emphasis. Prominent among these is Frued’s Psychoanalytical theory with its sub-theories on structure, development and dynamics.
The determinants of personality are, according to one author – inherited predisposition, abilities, family and home environment and culture.
Many condition in life make adjustment process necessary. Adjustment involves doing what is necessary to gratify a need, drive or motive or to meet physical or social demand. The processes of coping with (or adjustment) threats or frustration are varied. Among these are defense mechanism which may be regarded as reaction to situation forces.
The psychotherapeutic techniques include Freud’s free association, Roger’s nondirective counseling, group therapy, the use of learning theories like the principles of counter-conditioning and the principle of the reinforcement, psychodrama, role playing and eclectic approach.
Personality structure and how its work cannot be directly observed but merely inferred from behavior.
Any description of personality involved theoretical statement about its unit. Personality theories come under various classification depending upon the author’s point of emphasis. Prominent among these is Frued’s Psychoanalytical theory with its sub-theories on structure, development and dynamics.
The determinants of personality are, according to one author – inherited predisposition, abilities, family and home environment and culture.
Many condition in life make adjustment process necessary. Adjustment involves doing what is necessary to gratify a need, drive or motive or to meet physical or social demand. The processes of coping with (or adjustment) threats or frustration are varied. Among these are defense mechanism which may be regarded as reaction to situation forces.
The psychotherapeutic techniques include Freud’s free association, Roger’s nondirective counseling, group therapy, the use of learning theories like the principles of counter-conditioning and the principle of the reinforcement, psychodrama, role playing and eclectic approach.
Labels:
General Psychology
Little Dictionary of Psychological Terms
Abnormal: diverging widely from the normal; descriptive of behavior which deviatesmarkedly from what is considerednormative, healhty or psychologically desirable from an adjustmental point of view. The term often carries a strong connotation of undesirabilty or pathology, but it is also occasionally employed to characterized extreme superiority or supernormality.
Amnesia: loss of memory either partial or total, due to any cause.
Anorexia: a pathological loss of appetite. it is a common symptom of mental disorder.
Acrophobia: fear of heights.
Adrenalin: a proprietary name for epinephrine, a hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla.
Autism: thinking which is governed by personal needs or by self.
Behavior: any response (s) made by an organism, specially parts of a total response pattern, an act or an activity , a movement or complex of movements.
Behavior therapy: a form of a psychotherapy which attempt to eliminate or modify problem behavior by the use of classical conditioning and instrumental learning method.
Brain - the mass of nervous tissue within the skull.
Brain center: any interconnedted group of neurons in the brain which perform a specific function. Example the speech center in the cerebral cortex functions in the motor speech.
Brain lesion: damage to the brain cause by injury, disease, or surgical procedures.
Brain Stem: portion of the brain remaining after cerebrum and cerebellum are removed.
Brain waves: the rythmic spontaneous electrical discharges of the living brain.
Cerebellum: the smaller of the two main division of the brain, the cerebellum is an important organ of motor coordination.
Cerebral Palsy: a form of a paralysis caused by a lesion in the brain, It is frequentlya congenital defect in children.
Congenital - pertaining to something (ussually a condition or characteristic) which has it origin at the time of birth or during the fatal development. Congenital is to be distinguished from hereditary which denotes an origin in progenitors.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): a complex biochemical found in the nuclei of living cells. The chromosomal DNA is believed to be the material out of which genes are made. It has been suggested that the molecules of DNA constitute a kind of code or blueprint, which shape tje chemical materials of cells thru the medium of ribonucleic acid (RNA), which molecules serve as "messengers" or "contractors" to carry out the instructions supplied by DNA.
Day Dream: a walking fantasy or revery. Daydreaming is frequently wish fulfilling in function and differs from night dreaming in that the expression of wishes is not hidden.
Deafness: partial or complete inability to hear. Total deafness is the inability to hear all sound regardless of their loudness. Partial deafness may involve a decreased sensitivity to the entire range of the sound or it may involve only inability to hear certain pitches. Adventious deafness is caused by injury to the ear, as opposed to congenital deafness which is caused by the developmental defects and central or cortical deafness which result from injury to the areas of hearing in the cerebral cortex.
Defense Mechanism: any behavior pattern which protect the psyche from anxiety, shame, or guilt. Some common defense mecahnism are repression, regression, projection, indentification, fantasy, conpensation, sublimation reaction-formation and aggression.
Deja Vu: the illusion of familiarity in the strange place. It is believed to be due to the presence of familiar but subthreshold cues. Example, in walking in a strange town, some features may be familiar to those experienced elsewhere - a church steeple, a chain store, a shop front or two. As one glances at these, the presence of a subtle but familiar odor may sufficient to trigger the deja vu.
Delusion: a false belief which cannot be modified by reasoning or a demonstration of the facts. Persistent and systematic delusions are characteristic of psychotic states. Delusion should be distinguished from illusion which is a distorted perception and from hallucination which is a false perception.
Depression: in the normal individual, a state despondency characterized by feeling of inadequacy, lowered activity, and perssimism about the future. In pathological cases, an extreme state of unresponsiveness to stimuli, together with self-deprecation, delusion of inadequacy and hopelessness.
Ear : the organ which contain the receptors for hearing. It is divided into three main parts, the outer, middle and inner ears.
Egoism: the tendency for one to behave for self-advantage.
Embryo: the earliest stage of development. In man, the embryonic period is held to extend from the time of conception to (variously) between 6-12 weeks of intra-uterine life. The fetal stage follows the embryonic.
Amnesia: loss of memory either partial or total, due to any cause.
Anorexia: a pathological loss of appetite. it is a common symptom of mental disorder.
Acrophobia: fear of heights.
Adrenalin: a proprietary name for epinephrine, a hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla.
Autism: thinking which is governed by personal needs or by self.
Behavior: any response (s) made by an organism, specially parts of a total response pattern, an act or an activity , a movement or complex of movements.
Behavior therapy: a form of a psychotherapy which attempt to eliminate or modify problem behavior by the use of classical conditioning and instrumental learning method.
Brain - the mass of nervous tissue within the skull.
Brain center: any interconnedted group of neurons in the brain which perform a specific function. Example the speech center in the cerebral cortex functions in the motor speech.
Brain lesion: damage to the brain cause by injury, disease, or surgical procedures.
Brain Stem: portion of the brain remaining after cerebrum and cerebellum are removed.
Brain waves: the rythmic spontaneous electrical discharges of the living brain.
Cerebellum: the smaller of the two main division of the brain, the cerebellum is an important organ of motor coordination.
Cerebral Palsy: a form of a paralysis caused by a lesion in the brain, It is frequentlya congenital defect in children.
Congenital - pertaining to something (ussually a condition or characteristic) which has it origin at the time of birth or during the fatal development. Congenital is to be distinguished from hereditary which denotes an origin in progenitors.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): a complex biochemical found in the nuclei of living cells. The chromosomal DNA is believed to be the material out of which genes are made. It has been suggested that the molecules of DNA constitute a kind of code or blueprint, which shape tje chemical materials of cells thru the medium of ribonucleic acid (RNA), which molecules serve as "messengers" or "contractors" to carry out the instructions supplied by DNA.
Day Dream: a walking fantasy or revery. Daydreaming is frequently wish fulfilling in function and differs from night dreaming in that the expression of wishes is not hidden.
Deafness: partial or complete inability to hear. Total deafness is the inability to hear all sound regardless of their loudness. Partial deafness may involve a decreased sensitivity to the entire range of the sound or it may involve only inability to hear certain pitches. Adventious deafness is caused by injury to the ear, as opposed to congenital deafness which is caused by the developmental defects and central or cortical deafness which result from injury to the areas of hearing in the cerebral cortex.
Defense Mechanism: any behavior pattern which protect the psyche from anxiety, shame, or guilt. Some common defense mecahnism are repression, regression, projection, indentification, fantasy, conpensation, sublimation reaction-formation and aggression.
Deja Vu: the illusion of familiarity in the strange place. It is believed to be due to the presence of familiar but subthreshold cues. Example, in walking in a strange town, some features may be familiar to those experienced elsewhere - a church steeple, a chain store, a shop front or two. As one glances at these, the presence of a subtle but familiar odor may sufficient to trigger the deja vu.
Delusion: a false belief which cannot be modified by reasoning or a demonstration of the facts. Persistent and systematic delusions are characteristic of psychotic states. Delusion should be distinguished from illusion which is a distorted perception and from hallucination which is a false perception.
Depression: in the normal individual, a state despondency characterized by feeling of inadequacy, lowered activity, and perssimism about the future. In pathological cases, an extreme state of unresponsiveness to stimuli, together with self-deprecation, delusion of inadequacy and hopelessness.
Ear : the organ which contain the receptors for hearing. It is divided into three main parts, the outer, middle and inner ears.
Egoism: the tendency for one to behave for self-advantage.
Embryo: the earliest stage of development. In man, the embryonic period is held to extend from the time of conception to (variously) between 6-12 weeks of intra-uterine life. The fetal stage follows the embryonic.
Labels:
General Psychology
Definiton of DNA
The DNA are infinitesimally, tiny molecules found in evry living cell. In a fertilized human egg, all the DNA contents would weigh only about two ten trillionths of an ounce taken from each parents. One DNA molecule is a helix looking like a coiled ladder tightly packed in a single cell. It carries information much like a code consisting of a four basic control chemicals- adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine.
The rungs of the ladder are amde up to two codes units, the same two invariably pairing with one another. In terms of the alphabet. A pairs only with B and C with D in the different sequence which are limitless in variance so much so that multiple individual variations are possible.
This is one of the same way in the million of cells in the body. Another feat it accomplishes is the protein manufacture within the cell- so essential in providing blood and muscle to the body.
Each cell simutaneously make different kinds of protein. Protein are composed of 20 amino acids and for each protein a set of direction is carried on a gene of the long DNA molecule.
The rungs of the ladder are amde up to two codes units, the same two invariably pairing with one another. In terms of the alphabet. A pairs only with B and C with D in the different sequence which are limitless in variance so much so that multiple individual variations are possible.
This is one of the same way in the million of cells in the body. Another feat it accomplishes is the protein manufacture within the cell- so essential in providing blood and muscle to the body.
Each cell simutaneously make different kinds of protein. Protein are composed of 20 amino acids and for each protein a set of direction is carried on a gene of the long DNA molecule.
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DNA,
General Psychology
How Twinning and Multiple Births Happen
Identical twin result when an ovum splits into two after fertilization. They may also called single ovum or monozygotic twins. Since each containidentical sets of chromosomes, they are always of the same sex both girls or both boys.
Occasionally they maybe mirror image of each other in which case, the right side of the twin would resemble the left side of the other. There is no definite hereditary background for the occurance of single ovum twins.
The fertilization of seperate ove or of a single ovum may result in twin pregnancies, and are called double ovum, dizygotic or fraternal twins. There is a definite hereditary background in the double ovum twins. The frequency of twinning is affected by age as well as age and hereditary.
Plural births may arise from the fertilization of a single ovum or multiple ova up to the number of fetuses produced by conception. In a quintuplet pregnancy for example, three may develop from one ovum while the other two from seperate ovum. The famous Dionne quintuplets in Canada in May 1934 were all derived from the same ovum.
Occasionally they maybe mirror image of each other in which case, the right side of the twin would resemble the left side of the other. There is no definite hereditary background for the occurance of single ovum twins.
The fertilization of seperate ove or of a single ovum may result in twin pregnancies, and are called double ovum, dizygotic or fraternal twins. There is a definite hereditary background in the double ovum twins. The frequency of twinning is affected by age as well as age and hereditary.
Plural births may arise from the fertilization of a single ovum or multiple ova up to the number of fetuses produced by conception. In a quintuplet pregnancy for example, three may develop from one ovum while the other two from seperate ovum. The famous Dionne quintuplets in Canada in May 1934 were all derived from the same ovum.
Labels:
General Psychology
What are Test-tube Babies
It was Aldous Huxley in his Brave New world who peredicted a world where a scientific elite totalitarian "Predistinators" create test-tube babies un the assembly line and predetermine mental and physical characteristic.
In 1940, Dr. John Rock of Harvard University obtained ripe eggs from females and fertilization these in test tube. With his experiments, he had invaded one of " Mother Nature's most cherished rituals".
In 1950, Dr. Landrum B. Shettles, an American gynaecologist first conclusively demonstrated in vitro ("in glass") fertilization. He pierced the ovaries of his patients with a syringe and aspirated some of egg from the follicles. He placed this in a culture medium taken from the follicular fluid excised from tiny pieces of the tubal fimbrae (projections at the end of fallopian tube)
When the egg was ready for fertilization, he placed it in a person in another culture medium - the ovalation mucosa from the mid-cervical canal of a woman donor. Into this, he inserted yhe sperms, the tubal mucosa and the tubal fimbrae- the components the sperm naturally encounters inside. He grew this to the 64 cell stage (blastocyst) when the egg normally attaches itself to the uterus.
In 1940, Dr. John Rock of Harvard University obtained ripe eggs from females and fertilization these in test tube. With his experiments, he had invaded one of " Mother Nature's most cherished rituals".
In 1950, Dr. Landrum B. Shettles, an American gynaecologist first conclusively demonstrated in vitro ("in glass") fertilization. He pierced the ovaries of his patients with a syringe and aspirated some of egg from the follicles. He placed this in a culture medium taken from the follicular fluid excised from tiny pieces of the tubal fimbrae (projections at the end of fallopian tube)
When the egg was ready for fertilization, he placed it in a person in another culture medium - the ovalation mucosa from the mid-cervical canal of a woman donor. Into this, he inserted yhe sperms, the tubal mucosa and the tubal fimbrae- the components the sperm naturally encounters inside. He grew this to the 64 cell stage (blastocyst) when the egg normally attaches itself to the uterus.
Labels:
General Psychology
Science and Psychology
Science, just when we can call any subject a science? A science is a branch of knowledge or study dealing with a body of facts or thruths systematically arranged and showing the operation of general laws.
Psychology, is a science that gather facts systematically, organizes them into general principles and formulates theories out of these factual data.
In sciences as in Psychology, theories are formulated. When facts are gathered to explain mutation, we form biological theories whereas when we attempt to explain mutationas a causative factor of behavior, we formulate instead, a psychological theory.
In the scinces, as in psychology, these theories are constantly revised in the light of newly researched facts that may contradict earlier theories, a great deal of scientific and psychological endeavor is directed toward the acquisistion of new research data. Observable events called phenomena are collected through research. These are painstakingly and carefully measured by the psychologist with precise and accurately measuring devices which preludes guesswork.
Psychology, is a science that gather facts systematically, organizes them into general principles and formulates theories out of these factual data.
In sciences as in Psychology, theories are formulated. When facts are gathered to explain mutation, we form biological theories whereas when we attempt to explain mutationas a causative factor of behavior, we formulate instead, a psychological theory.
In the scinces, as in psychology, these theories are constantly revised in the light of newly researched facts that may contradict earlier theories, a great deal of scientific and psychological endeavor is directed toward the acquisistion of new research data. Observable events called phenomena are collected through research. These are painstakingly and carefully measured by the psychologist with precise and accurately measuring devices which preludes guesswork.
Labels:
General Psychology
Definition of Behavior
The second important element in the defination of psychology emphasizes "a study of behavior", Behavior as defined psychologically, refers to action or activities of the individual as matters of psychological study. The term actually covers more than it actually conveys. It may mean a lot of things.
While behavior most often refers to whats is outwardly or overtly manifested, as in the raising of one's hand, it may also mean those activities that are hidden or covert - those not visible to the naked eye. For instance, a clenched fist behind one's back is behavior not directly visible but behavior that is nevertheless within the realm of psychological investigation.
Behavior maybe concious or unconcious, acts may be within the level of one's awareness or deeply embedded in one's subconcious, that is, unconcious. We may fall in love and be very much aware of the feeling, of the pounding of our heart and the increase in our pulse rate. We may harbor an instense hatred toward someone we barely know and know not why we feel so.
The first is concious behavior, tha latter, unconcious, and both are subjects of investigation in psychology.
Some acts also maybe rational, voluntary and involuntary. Rational exercise with sanity or reason. When a person express his feeling of admiration for a person he admire, he is acting with a reason. He express his preference for someone or something he admires. Acts which are commited for no apparent reason or explanation - as when a man losses his sanity and laugh at nobody or nothing rational and irrational acts.
Voluntary, done with full volition or will. When a student enrolls for a course in psychology, he does it with the use of his will. H ediscriminate, chooses and decides.
Involuntary, processes within the body that go on even while we are sleep or awake are involuntary, these are like behavioral processes that fall under psychological study - like respiration, circulation, and digestion.
While behavior most often refers to whats is outwardly or overtly manifested, as in the raising of one's hand, it may also mean those activities that are hidden or covert - those not visible to the naked eye. For instance, a clenched fist behind one's back is behavior not directly visible but behavior that is nevertheless within the realm of psychological investigation.
Behavior maybe concious or unconcious, acts may be within the level of one's awareness or deeply embedded in one's subconcious, that is, unconcious. We may fall in love and be very much aware of the feeling, of the pounding of our heart and the increase in our pulse rate. We may harbor an instense hatred toward someone we barely know and know not why we feel so.
The first is concious behavior, tha latter, unconcious, and both are subjects of investigation in psychology.
Some acts also maybe rational, voluntary and involuntary. Rational exercise with sanity or reason. When a person express his feeling of admiration for a person he admire, he is acting with a reason. He express his preference for someone or something he admires. Acts which are commited for no apparent reason or explanation - as when a man losses his sanity and laugh at nobody or nothing rational and irrational acts.
Voluntary, done with full volition or will. When a student enrolls for a course in psychology, he does it with the use of his will. H ediscriminate, chooses and decides.
Involuntary, processes within the body that go on even while we are sleep or awake are involuntary, these are like behavioral processes that fall under psychological study - like respiration, circulation, and digestion.
Labels:
General Psychology
Psychology and its Branches
General Psychology: this field present the basic and fundamental principles of human behavior. It explains the HOW and WHY of a person's from scientific viewpoint.
Comparetive Psychology: this deal with the beahavior and mental processes of different species. It makes a comparative study of the behavior of the different animals of all degrees of complexity from protozoans to primates - and hence is sometimes called "Animals Psychology". Its aim is to discover in rhe pattern of behavior of subhuman organism, clues to enrich the knowledge of human behavior. Its overlap with the experimental and psychological study of behavior
Genetic or Developmental Psychology: this is a field of study regarding human development and the inheritance and development of traits and abilities. Growth is traced form the earliest beginning till old age. The important considerations are yhe different stages of bodily cevelopment, intelligence, abilities and general behavior.
Dynamic Psychology: (psychology of personality) mental phenomena are studied in terms of internals drives and motives as causes of behavior.
Physiological Psychology: this is a study relating bodily processes to behavior, It studies the function of the nervous system and other bodily structures in the behavior of organisms.
Abnormal Psychology: this deals with the behavioral disorders like physical handicaps, nervous disorder, speech impairments, mental aberrations, and others. The study covers alcoholism, drug addiction, crime and juvenile diliquency.
Comparetive Psychology: this deal with the beahavior and mental processes of different species. It makes a comparative study of the behavior of the different animals of all degrees of complexity from protozoans to primates - and hence is sometimes called "Animals Psychology". Its aim is to discover in rhe pattern of behavior of subhuman organism, clues to enrich the knowledge of human behavior. Its overlap with the experimental and psychological study of behavior
Genetic or Developmental Psychology: this is a field of study regarding human development and the inheritance and development of traits and abilities. Growth is traced form the earliest beginning till old age. The important considerations are yhe different stages of bodily cevelopment, intelligence, abilities and general behavior.
Dynamic Psychology: (psychology of personality) mental phenomena are studied in terms of internals drives and motives as causes of behavior.
Physiological Psychology: this is a study relating bodily processes to behavior, It studies the function of the nervous system and other bodily structures in the behavior of organisms.
Abnormal Psychology: this deals with the behavioral disorders like physical handicaps, nervous disorder, speech impairments, mental aberrations, and others. The study covers alcoholism, drug addiction, crime and juvenile diliquency.
Labels:
General Psychology
The Beginnings of Psychology: Philosophy and Physiology
While psychology did not emerge as a separate discipline until the late 1800s, its earliest history can be traced back to the time of the early Greeks. During the 17th-century, the French philosopher Rene Descartes introduced the idea of dualism, which asserted that the mind and body were two separate entities that interact to form the human experience. Many other issues still debated by psychologists today, such as the relative contributions of nature vs. nurture, are rooted in these early philosophical traditions.
So what makes psychology different from philosophy? While early philosophers relied on methods such as observation and logic, today’s psychologists utilize scientific methodologies to study and draw conclusions about human thought and behavior. Physiology also contributed to psychology’s eventual emergence as a scientific discipline. Early physiology research on the brain and behavior had a dramatic impact on psychology, ultimately contributing to the application of scientific methodologies to the study of human thought and behavior.
German experimentalist Hermann Ebbinghaus, suggests a key idea about the history of psychology: though psychology is relatively new as a formal academic discipline, scholars have pondered the questions that psychologists ask for thousands of years. According to psychology historian Morton Hunt, an experiment performed by the King of Egypt, as far back as the seventh century B.C., can be considered the first psychology experiment (Hunt, 1993, p. 1).
The king wanted to test whether or not Egyptian was the oldest civilization on earth. His idea was that, if children were raised in isolation from infancy and were given no instruction in language of any kind, then the language they spontaneously spoke would be of the original civilization of man -- hopefully, Egyptian. The experiment, itself, was flawed, but the king deserves credit for his idea that thoughts and language come from the mind and his ambition to test such an idea.
Typically, historians point to the writings of ancient Greek philosophers, such Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, as the first significant work to be rich in psychology-related thought. They considered important questions like what is free will, how does the mind work, and what is the relationship of people to their society. For hundreds of years, philosophers continued to wrestle with these and related questions, and psychology eventually sprouted from the roots of philosophy. Psychology also derived its origins from physiology, another subject that had been studied for thousands of years. In fact, the father of psychology, William Wundt, was originally a professor of physiology
So what makes psychology different from philosophy? While early philosophers relied on methods such as observation and logic, today’s psychologists utilize scientific methodologies to study and draw conclusions about human thought and behavior. Physiology also contributed to psychology’s eventual emergence as a scientific discipline. Early physiology research on the brain and behavior had a dramatic impact on psychology, ultimately contributing to the application of scientific methodologies to the study of human thought and behavior.
German experimentalist Hermann Ebbinghaus, suggests a key idea about the history of psychology: though psychology is relatively new as a formal academic discipline, scholars have pondered the questions that psychologists ask for thousands of years. According to psychology historian Morton Hunt, an experiment performed by the King of Egypt, as far back as the seventh century B.C., can be considered the first psychology experiment (Hunt, 1993, p. 1).
The king wanted to test whether or not Egyptian was the oldest civilization on earth. His idea was that, if children were raised in isolation from infancy and were given no instruction in language of any kind, then the language they spontaneously spoke would be of the original civilization of man -- hopefully, Egyptian. The experiment, itself, was flawed, but the king deserves credit for his idea that thoughts and language come from the mind and his ambition to test such an idea.
Typically, historians point to the writings of ancient Greek philosophers, such Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, as the first significant work to be rich in psychology-related thought. They considered important questions like what is free will, how does the mind work, and what is the relationship of people to their society. For hundreds of years, philosophers continued to wrestle with these and related questions, and psychology eventually sprouted from the roots of philosophy. Psychology also derived its origins from physiology, another subject that had been studied for thousands of years. In fact, the father of psychology, William Wundt, was originally a professor of physiology
Labels:
General Psychology
The Brain - The Central Nervous System
Cerebrum: for sense perception, voluntary movements , learning, remembering, thinking, emotion, conciousness, personality integration.
Hypothalamus: control of visceral and somatic functions as temperature and metabolism.
Thalamus: the way station for impulses coming up the spinal cord to the cerebrum.
Midbrain: a conduction and switching center; pupillary light reflex
Cerebellum: for muscle tone, body balance, coordination of voluntary movements (as of fingers and thumb).
Medulla: has control over breathing, swallowing, digestion, heartbeat.
Reticular Formation: for the arousal and alertness of the organism, the change from the sleep to wakefulness.
Corpus Collosum: contains fibers connecting the two brain hemisphere
Brain Areas
Motor area: the body is represented in approximately upside-down movement form. Movements on the right side of the body originate thru stimulation of the left hemisphere.
Body-sense area: (in the parietal lobe) the lower extremeties are represented high on the area of the opposite hemisphere.
Visual area: (in the occpital lobe), damage in the left hemisphere will result in blind areas in the left side of both eyes.
Audiotary area: both ears are totally represented on both sides so thst loss of one temporal lobe has very little effect on hearing.
Speech area: the motor speech area (Broca's speech area) controls the tongue and jaws. It is located in the right hemisphere of the left handed person and vice versa - according to conventional interpretation.
Association areas: (areas of the brain not accounted for), bring together phenomena involving more than one sense.
Smell area: just below the frontal - near the temporal lobe.
Taste area: located behind the central fissure at the lower part of the side of the brain.
Hypothalamus: control of visceral and somatic functions as temperature and metabolism.
Thalamus: the way station for impulses coming up the spinal cord to the cerebrum.
Midbrain: a conduction and switching center; pupillary light reflex
Cerebellum: for muscle tone, body balance, coordination of voluntary movements (as of fingers and thumb).
Medulla: has control over breathing, swallowing, digestion, heartbeat.
Reticular Formation: for the arousal and alertness of the organism, the change from the sleep to wakefulness.
Corpus Collosum: contains fibers connecting the two brain hemisphere
Brain Areas
Motor area: the body is represented in approximately upside-down movement form. Movements on the right side of the body originate thru stimulation of the left hemisphere.
Body-sense area: (in the parietal lobe) the lower extremeties are represented high on the area of the opposite hemisphere.
Visual area: (in the occpital lobe), damage in the left hemisphere will result in blind areas in the left side of both eyes.
Audiotary area: both ears are totally represented on both sides so thst loss of one temporal lobe has very little effect on hearing.
Speech area: the motor speech area (Broca's speech area) controls the tongue and jaws. It is located in the right hemisphere of the left handed person and vice versa - according to conventional interpretation.
Association areas: (areas of the brain not accounted for), bring together phenomena involving more than one sense.
Smell area: just below the frontal - near the temporal lobe.
Taste area: located behind the central fissure at the lower part of the side of the brain.
Labels:
General Psychology
Psychology: Structuralism vs. Functionalism
During the first decades of psychology, two main schools of thought dominated the field: structuralism and functionalism. Structuralism was a system of psychology developed by Edward Bradford Titchener, an American psychologist who studied under Wilhelm Wundt. Structuralists believed that the task of psychology is to identify the basic elements of consciousness in much the same way that physicists break down the basic particles of matter. For example, Titchener identified four elements in the sensation of taste: sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. The main method of investigation in structuralism was introspection. The influence of structuralism in psychology faded after Titchener’s death in 1927.
In contradiction to the structuralist movement, William James promoted a school of thought known as functionalism, the belief that the real task of psychology is to investigate the function, or purpose, of consciousness rather than its structure. James was highly influenced by Darwin’s evolutionary theory that all characteristics of a species must serve some adaptive purpose. Functionalism enjoyed widespread appeal in the United States. Its three main leaders were James Rowland Angell, a student of James; John Dewey, who was also one of the foremost American philosophers and educators; and Harvey A. Carr, a psychologist at the University of Chicago.
In their efforts to understand human behavioral processes, the functional psychologists developed the technique of longitudinal research, which consists of interviewing, testing, and observing one person over a long period of time. Such a system permits the psychologist to observe and record the person’s development and how he or she reacts to different circumstances
Shaped by Wundt's ideas, structuralism was based on the notion that the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements and investigate how these elements are related (c.f. physics), hence the study of sensations, feelings and images as components of conscious experience. Structuralists depend on the method of introspection.
Architected by William James (1842-1910), functionalists believed that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure. Such notion was derived from Darwin's theories of natural selection, which suggest that all characteristics of a species (e.g. consciousness of human) should serve some purpose as otherwise they wont be selected over time by nature.
Functionalists argue that consciousness consists of a continuous flows of thoughts (or stream of consciousness) and one should not only look at the static points (structure) in that flow. Hence they are more interested in how people adapt their behaviour to the real world. The practical orientation of functionalism fostered the development of applied psychology and behaviourism.
In contradiction to the structuralist movement, William James promoted a school of thought known as functionalism, the belief that the real task of psychology is to investigate the function, or purpose, of consciousness rather than its structure. James was highly influenced by Darwin’s evolutionary theory that all characteristics of a species must serve some adaptive purpose. Functionalism enjoyed widespread appeal in the United States. Its three main leaders were James Rowland Angell, a student of James; John Dewey, who was also one of the foremost American philosophers and educators; and Harvey A. Carr, a psychologist at the University of Chicago.
In their efforts to understand human behavioral processes, the functional psychologists developed the technique of longitudinal research, which consists of interviewing, testing, and observing one person over a long period of time. Such a system permits the psychologist to observe and record the person’s development and how he or she reacts to different circumstances
Shaped by Wundt's ideas, structuralism was based on the notion that the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements and investigate how these elements are related (c.f. physics), hence the study of sensations, feelings and images as components of conscious experience. Structuralists depend on the method of introspection.
Architected by William James (1842-1910), functionalists believed that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure. Such notion was derived from Darwin's theories of natural selection, which suggest that all characteristics of a species (e.g. consciousness of human) should serve some purpose as otherwise they wont be selected over time by nature.
Functionalists argue that consciousness consists of a continuous flows of thoughts (or stream of consciousness) and one should not only look at the static points (structure) in that flow. Hence they are more interested in how people adapt their behaviour to the real world. The practical orientation of functionalism fostered the development of applied psychology and behaviourism.
Labels:
General Psychology
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